叶迎春 年四季 刘佳佳 高 燕 袁 青 (泸州医学院基础医学院,泸州64600)
2003 年Baekkevold 发现一种高内皮小静脉核因子(Nuclear factor of high endothelial venules,NFHEV)[1],2005 年Schmitz 搜寻序列资料库发现该基因序列与IL-1 家族同源,命名为IL-33[2],在人体定位于染色体9p24.1,编码270 个氨基酸。IL-1 家族成员在固有免疫反应中有各自不同的生物学活性,大部分有致炎作用,也有部分成员可以抑制炎症,如IL-37、IL-1Ra[3],它们在自身免疫疾病与炎症紊乱中发挥多种病理作用[4]。IL-33 作为IL-1 家族的一员,在许多免疫疾病中有重要的多向效应,对于炎症,IL-33 有双向调控作用[5]。IL-33 主要诱导Th2 细胞、肥大细胞、巨噬细胞等免疫细胞分泌IL-5、IL-13 等Th2 类细胞因子,参与宿主抗寄生虫感染与过敏性疾病的发展;它也可作为致炎因子参与非Th2 型急慢性炎症反应[6],诱导TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6等非Th2 型细胞因子分泌;作为核转录因子,IL-33还可调节基因转录[3]。
IL-33 广泛表达于多种组织器官,在胃、肺、脊髓、脑、上皮以及内皮表达较高。表达的细胞有巨噬细胞、树突状细胞(DC)、肥大细胞、上皮细胞、平滑肌细胞、成纤维细胞、肌成纤维细胞、内皮细胞、神经胶质细胞、成骨细胞、脂肪细胞,其中在组织屏障细胞比如上皮与内皮细胞有持续表达[2]。多种刺激可诱导或上调IL-33 表达,在肥大细胞,通过FcεRI信号通路可诱导IL-33 表达[7],在DC、巨噬细胞以及成纤维细胞,刺激Toll 样受体(Toll-like receptor,TLR)也能诱导IL-33 mRNA 的表达[8]。
IL-33 通过何种方式释放还存在争议。曾经认为IL-33 与IL-1 家族成员IL-1β 和IL-18 两种细胞因子相似,是由caspase-1 加工处理成活性形式[2]。近期观点认为全长的IL-33 有充分的生物活性,经过caspase 切割可使IL-33 失活[9-11],Lefranais 等[12]认为中性粒细胞丝氨酸蛋白酶、组织蛋白酶G 与弹性蛋白酶酶切全长IL-33 后产生的成熟形式比全长的IL-33 更有活性。不管IL-33 被加工处理成何种形式,总的观点是当细胞坏死时释放全长IL-33,凋亡时caspase 裂解IL-33 失活[9,10]。机体受到感染与机械损伤等伤害性刺激时促使IL-33 释放,这类似于高迁移率蛋白1(High-mobility group protein B-1,HMGB-1)以及IL-1α 的Alarmin 功能[9,12]。总之,IL-33 遭受组织损伤、坏死、感染而被动释放,在细胞外在中性粒细胞作用下形成更多的成熟形式参与炎症过程。
IL-33 与ST2 和IL-1 受体辅助蛋白(IL-1 receptor accessory protein,IL-1RAcP)组成的异质二聚体受体复合物结合发挥传统的细胞因子生物效应[14],活化MyD88 和NF-κB 信号通路[15]。有许多静息以及活化的免疫细胞表达ST2,这些细胞有Th2 细胞、肥大细胞、嗜碱性粒细胞、巨噬细胞、树突状细胞(DC)、CD8+T 细胞以及B 细胞等[2,16-18]。IL-33 活化DC 诱导Th2 型免疫反应,促使幼稚T 淋巴细胞分化成Th2 细胞[19],促进气道过敏性炎症[20]。近期研究发现在ST2 缺陷的DC,抗原刺激过度活化从而加重试验性自身免疫性脑脊髓膜炎[21]。IL-33 直接作用于Th2 细胞、nuocytes[22]和B1 细胞促进IL-5和IL-13 分泌,IL-33 还可使B1 细胞产生的IgM 抗体显著增加[23]。IL-33 与IL-13 协同作用促使巨噬细胞分化成有活性的M2 巨噬细胞[24],M2 巨噬细胞可以明显减轻绿脓杆菌所致的角膜炎[25]。IL-33可活化肥大细胞与嗜碱性粒细胞并诱导其脱颗粒、成熟、提高成活并促进产生致炎细胞因子与趋化因子[26,27]。IL-33 可单独或是与GM-CSF、IL-3、IL-5 等细胞因子协作刺激嗜酸性粒细胞分泌各种细胞因子以及趋化因子,上调细胞黏附分子表达,促细胞脱颗粒,提高细胞存活[25]。对于固有淋巴细胞,IL-33 与IL-12 刺激NK 细胞产生IFN-γ[17,28],IL-33 与IL-25以及TSLP 可作用于所有的2 型固有淋巴细胞(Type 2 innate lymphoid cells,ILC2s),在抗寄生虫反应、非适应性免疫的气道高反应性中起着至关重要的作用[29]。除免疫细胞外,IL-33 也可作用于表达ST2 的上皮细胞、内皮细胞和纤维母细胞、脂肪细胞等多种细胞[30]。IL-33 可作用于血管内皮细胞促进炎性介质分泌、血管生成与渗漏[31]。IL-33 可作用于体内多种组织细胞,这提示IL-33 可能参与了许多疾病发生发展。
3.1 IL-33 与类风湿关节炎 类风湿关节炎(Rheumatoid arthritis,RA)是一种累及周围关节为主的多系统炎症性自身免疫病,病理为慢性滑膜炎,侵及下层的软骨和骨,造成关节破坏。在RA 病人的滑膜可检测到IL-33[32],在静息期时表达很少甚至不表达IL-33,TNF-α、IL-1β 等致炎因子刺激后IL-33 表达明显上调[33]。RA 病人血清中IL-33 表达情况与滑膜相似,与疾病严重程度正相关[34],同一病人滑液中IL-33 水平高于血清[35]。用TNF-α 拮抗剂(Etanercept)以及TNF 抑制剂治疗RA 后,血清IL-33水平下降[36,37],这说明血清IL-33 与RA 病情严重程度呈正相关,血清IL-33 可作为判定RA 严重程度与检测RA 治疗效果的有用标志。
IL-33 诱骗受体能减轻小鼠胶原诱导的关节炎(Collagen induced arthritis,CIA)的严重程度[38],在疾病早期,用抗ST2 封闭抗体能获得保护作用,CIA减弱同时关节损害减轻。外源重组IL-33(Exogenous recombinant IL-33,rIL-33)可加重CIA 或是小鼠自身抗体诱导关节炎(Autoantibody-induced arthritis,AIA)严重程度[5],而ST2 缺陷小鼠CIA 或是AIA 病情减轻同时IL-17、TNF-α、IFN-γ 等致炎细胞因子明显减少[33]。以上数据说明IL-33/ST2 通路促进关节炎症,抑制该通路可以减轻症状,IL-33 是RA 一个潜在治疗靶位。然而由于体外培养显示IL-33 抑制破骨细胞分化从而保护骨组织[39],在IL-33过表达的转基因鼠证实破骨细胞生成受到抑制[40],因而这条通路的治疗仍需密切追踪。
3.2 IL-33 与多发性硬化 近年IL-33 在中枢神经系统(Central nervous system,CNS)疾病中的作用受到关注,如多发性硬化(Multiple sclerosis,MS)。MS是一种中枢神经系统脱髓鞘疾病,病变位于脑部或脊髓,病灶播散广泛,病程中常有缓减复发的神经系统损害。IL-33 在小鼠脊髓[2]与人中枢神经系统(Central nervous system,CNS)星形神经胶质细胞中有较高表达[41,42],ST2 蛋白也大量表达于鼠脊髓[41],这提示IL-33/ST2 通路在CNS 可能有特殊的作用。在病原相关分子模型,用Theiler's 鼠类的脑脊髓膜炎病毒感染小鼠的脑部,IL-33 水平与活性均显著提高[43]。在小鼠的实验性自身免疫脑脊髓炎 (Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis,EAE)模型中,脊髓中IL-33 与ST2 表达显著高于正常小鼠[41,44],提示IL-33 参与了MS 疾病进展。MS病人在CNS 的白质与斑块区域IL-33 水平均明显高于正常人,在超过2 个月未经治疗的复发缓减型MS病人,新鲜外周白细胞表达IL-33 mRNA 水平也明显高于健康人,重组IL-1β-1α 治疗三个月后,血浆中IL-33 水平和外周白细胞mRNA 均受到抑制[42]。由此可见,IL-33 可作为检测MS 疾病活动状态以及跟踪治疗效果的生物标记。
大量资料证实IL-33 在CNS 炎症中起作用,但是还不清楚这种作用是有益还是有害的。IL-33 缺陷小鼠EAE 病程进展没有变化,这提示IL-33 对EAE 发病不是必需的[45]。ST2 缺陷小鼠EAE 病情加重,用rIL-33 治疗发病早期的EAE 小鼠,rIL-33起保护作用[41],这种保护作用伴有IL-17 和IFN-γ产物减少,但外周淋巴细胞与淋巴组织产生的IL-5与IL-13 增加,同时巨噬细胞向M2 型转化[24]。然而,另有资料揭示外源rIL-33 加重EAE 病程,抗IL-33 抗体延迟EAE 发病并减轻EAE 的严重程度[44]。Pei 等[5]认为外源rIL-33 给药时间是影响EAE 进展的关键,当延迟给药时间可减轻EAE,发病前给药加重EAE 进展。IL-33 还是一种潜在的内皮活化剂,IL-33 提高内皮通透性引起小鼠皮肤血管渗漏[31],当CNS 发生炎症时,血脑屏障(Blood brain barrier,BBB)出现障碍,早期IL-33 可通过损坏的BBB 促进MS 和EAE 炎症。尽管IL-33/ST2 通路在MS 与其他CNS 疾病的确切病理生理功能还不完全清楚,IL-33 将来有可能作为治疗MS 的一个潜在治疗靶位。
3.3 IL-33 与自身免疫性炎性肠疾病 在IL-33 早期研究中,Schmitz 等[2]在胃中发现IL-33 mRNA,并发现IL-33 能诱使消化道发生严重病理学改变,包括免疫细胞浸润、上皮细胞增生、杯状细胞增生肥大以及腔内黏液增加。近期有研究显示IL-33 与ST2遗传变异与对自身免疫性炎性肠疾病(Inflammatory bowel diseases,IBD)的易感性有相关性,包括溃疡性结肠炎(Ulcerative colitis,UC)及克罗恩病(Crohn's disease,CD)[46]。Carrier 等[47]认为CD 病人慢性发炎的上皮细胞是IL-33 的主要来源[47],Pastorelli等[48]则认为IL-33 对UC 有潜在作用而在CD 中则没有,UC 病人肠上皮细胞与黏膜固有层淋巴细胞高度表达IL-33 并与疾病活动度有相关性,在CD 的病人则没有发现这样的现象。类似发现sST2 主要表达于UC 病人的结肠黏膜而不是表达于CD 病人与健康人[49]。这些数据说明IL-33/ST2 与UC 的炎症相关而与CD 无关,可能原因是CD 主要受Th1/Th17 细胞调节而UC 则主要受Th2 细胞调节[50]。与RA 以及MS 结果相似,UC 病人血循环中IL-33和sST2 水平也与疾病严重程度相关,受TNF-α 拮抗剂(Infliximab)治疗调节[48]。
在动物模型中研究IL-33 在IBD 进展中的作用时,观察发现三硝基苯磺酸(Trinitrobenzen sulfonic acid,TNBS)诱导小鼠的结肠炎,结肠组织中IL-33升高,rIL-33 可明显减轻结肠炎的症状,同时增强Th2 型免疫反应[51]。在右旋糖酐硫酸酯钠(Dextran sodium sulfate,DSS)诱导结肠炎模型中,rIL-33 有类似的保护作用[52]。在DSS 诱导结肠炎模型中,IL-33 缺陷小鼠中性粒细胞趋化因子减少,诱发的局部炎症延迟,生存率高于野生型小鼠,当DSS 水改为正常饮用水时,IL-33 缺陷小鼠黏膜组织损伤恢复延迟以及体重恢复延迟[45],这说明IL-33 可能有支持IBD 的黏膜治愈与损伤修复作用。
总之,当前数据表明在IBD 发炎的黏膜组织中,IL-33 和ST2 表达上调是炎症活跃的一个指标,相对于CD 来说UC 更具有特异性。如果我们能更好地了解IL-33 在黏膜炎症与IBD 进展的双重作用,有望将来为治疗UC 提供新策略。
3.4 IL-33 与糖尿病 糖尿病是胰岛素分泌或作用缺陷引起慢性高血糖为特征的代谢紊乱。IL-33 持续表达于鼠胰腺[53],可能与胰腺的疾病有关。IL-33/ST2 信号通路通过提高脂肪组织中Th2 类细胞因子并抑制脂肪形成与代谢的基因表达,对于心血管疾病与肥胖病是有益的[54]。用rIL-33 治疗遗传性肥胖型糖尿病小鼠,可以减轻肥胖,提高葡萄糖和胰岛素耐受,从而发挥着保护作用[55],调节IL-33 表达有可能是将来治疗肥胖性2 型糖尿病(type 2 diabetes,T2D)的一种方式。T2D 病人的sST2 水平高于健康人,而这种升高与血糖控制无关[56],有可能是慢性炎症使sST2 水平升高。用高剂量streptozotocin 诱导鼠1 型糖尿病(type 1 diabetes,T1D)模型,在耐受应力试验中ST2 基因缺失小鼠对糖尿病的易感性提高[57],有可能是IL-33/ST2 通路通过调节Th1/Th17 平衡从而对T1D 发挥着保护作用。还有人报道心肌IL-33 水平降低时,可通过活化蛋白激酶C βII 从而使心肌对缺血再灌注损伤的敏感性增加[58],外源rIL-33 治疗可以减轻缺血再灌注诱导损伤。总之,上述资料说明IL-33 对糖尿病以及糖尿病伴发的心脏病有重要保护作用。
3.5 IL-33 与系统性红斑狼疮 系统性红斑狼疮(Systemic lupus erythematosus,SLE)是一种自身免疫性结缔组织病,由于体内有大量有害的自身抗体与免疫复合物,造成组织损伤,累及多系统、多器官。目前,有关IL-33/ST2 信号通路对于SLE 疾病的研究方面的资料不是很多。近期研究发现活动期的SLE 病人血清中sST2 水平明显高于静止期的SLE病人以及正常人,升高水平与疾病严重程度相关[59]。另一篇研究显示SLE 病人血清IL-33 水平相对于健康对照也明显上调,但低于RA 病人水平[60]。Yang[60]进一步调查发现IL-33 对SLE 急性期起作用而对疾病进展没有太大相关性,推测是IL-33 对SLE 病人的红细胞、血小板以及它们的前体细胞发挥作用。以上资料说明IL-33/ST2 通路对SLE进展可能有作用,但还缺少数据,需进一步研究IL-33 以及ST2 与SLE 疾病的免疫机制。
3.6 IL-33 与系统性硬化 系统性硬化(Systemic sclerosis,SSc)是以皮肤和某些内脏的小血管壁增生、管腔阻塞造成皮肤广泛纤维化和脏器功能不全为特征的一种弥漫性结缔组织病,最近发现与IL-33相关。在SSc 早期,病人内皮与上皮IL-33 蛋白表达下调或是缺失而IL-33 mRNA 正常甚至上调,血管内皮浸润的免疫细胞ST2 表达上调,但在SSc 病人晚期却发现内皮中IL-33 蛋白表达较高而ST2 的表达较弱[61]。SSc 病人IL-33 与ST2 的这种反常表达,可能是在SSc 早期,内皮活化或是受损,对纤维化起关键作用的炎细胞或是免疫细胞以及纤维母细胞或是肌成纤维细胞表达的ST2 调动IL-33 表达[5]。检测SSc 病人血清发现IL-33 水平高于健康人,与皮肤硬化范围以及肺纤维化程度呈正相关[62]。因此看来,IL-33 可能对于SSc 病人的皮肤以及肺纤维化起着作用。在研究IL-33 对皮肤纤维化的作用中,小鼠皮下注射IL-33,引起嗜酸性粒细胞、CD3(+)淋巴细胞以及F4/80(+)单核细胞的聚集;IL-13 mRNA 表达增加,皮肤向纤维化发展[63],这与SSc 病人情况相似,证实IL-33 是纤维化的介导者。
3.7 IL-33 与其他身免疫性疾病 IL-33 也与许多其他免疫紊乱有关,比如特异性皮炎(Atopic dermatitis,AD)。TNF-α 与IFN-γ 联合刺激诱导皮肤成纤维细胞、角化细胞、原代巨噬细胞以及血管内皮产生IL-33[64]。在小鼠AD 模型中,过敏原或是葡萄球菌肠毒素B 作用下的皮损部位IL-33 与ST2 表达增加,局部用免疫抑制剂(Tacrolimus)治疗可以抑制其表达[64]。最近一篇类似的调查研究发现AD 病人血清中IL-33 水平明显高于慢性特发性荨麻疹病人、牛皮癣病人以及健康人,当用药物治疗后水平明显下降[65],这说明IL-33 与AD 皮肤损害有明显相关性。在一些较少见的自身免疫疾病也可见IL-33水平升高,比如强直性脊柱炎(Ankylosing spondylitis,AS)、肌萎缩侧索硬化症(Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,ALS)以及白塞病。相对于健康人而言,AS病人血清IL-33 水平升高,与疾病活动性以及TNFα 和IL-17 正相关[66]。相反的,ALS 病人血清中IL-33 水平明显低于健康人,而sST2 水平明显较高[67]。也有报道称白塞病病人的血清、外周血单核细胞以及损害的皮肤IL-33 表达增加[68]。
IL-33 作为孤儿受体ST2 的配体,与ST2 结合发挥生物效应。IL-33 与ST2 在体内表达广泛,具有多种免疫调节效应,功能已超过Th2 免疫,在不同自身免疫性疾病发挥着不同作用。充分了解IL-33 在不同自身免疫性疾病表达情况,不同阶段发挥的生物效应,研究IL-33 对疾病进展的影响,有利于检测疾病活动以及跟踪治疗效果,为自身免疫性疾病开辟新的治疗途径。
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