INTERCULTURAL LANGUAGE EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES CHINESE COLLEGE ENGLISH TEACHERS FACE

潘 娟

（淮阴师范学院外国语学院，江苏 淮安 223000）

1.What is Intercultural Language Education?

Intercultural language education (ILE)is such a broad subject to define.It consists of intercultural language teaching (ILT) and intercultural language learning (ILL).Its aim is to promote learners’ linguistic competence as well as intercultural communicative competence.

Intercultural language teaching places the need to communicate in the first place.It seeks to teach culture in a way that develops intercultural communicative competence as well as developing language skills (Liddicoat,2004:17).Intercultural language learning research gets a further understanding of the relationship between language and culture.It takes as its starting point the idea that language learning and learning about target culture can not realistically be separated (Valdes, 1986;Robinson, 1988; Byram, 1989; Harison, 1990;Kramsch, 1993a, as cited in Cortazzi & Jin,2001).In order to communicate with native speakers, both home culture and foreign culture should be learned.Language teachers and learners are required to negotiate and identify their own “third place” (Kramsch, 1993: 257)between the first and the foreign language in order to develop the ability to reflect both on the target and on the native culture.

1.1 Background of the Development of ILE

Traditional education can not qualify people to communicate with the wide range of cultural strangers.Thus educators have particular responsibility to understand the new intercultural challenges and to teach the new skills that are demand (Bennett, Bennett &Allen, 2003: 239).

The term intercultural refers to “the meeting of two cultures or two languages across the political boundaries of nationstates”(Kramsh, 2000: 81).Intercultural communication, a new discipline has been promoted since the late 1970s, is“communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event”(Dai, 2002).It is frequently used to indicate communication between people from different cultures, which implies a comparison between cultures.Successful intercultural communication requires people to have the intercultural communicative competence.Previous communicative language teaching seems no longer to satisfy this teaching aim although it has taken a further step in the exploration of how to deal with teaching culture in language education.It failed on two counts.One is that it did not fully recognize the relation between language and culture; it did not provide an approach to depicting culture in language use.The other is that it failed to realize that learning about “another” culture was not enough to promote understanding between cultures(Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999: 113-115).Language learners are required to distance themselves from their own culture and try to find their own place between the native linguaculture and the target linguaculture in order to achieve the success of intercultural communication.Researches on intercultural communication call on a new teaching approach to appear.Traditional education can no longer meet the demand of the society.Intercultural language education, as an emerging modern approach,should take the responsibility of educating qualified language learners.

ILT has shifted its aim from communicative competence to intercultural competence.Intercultural speakers rather than “native speakers” should be the aim of intercultural language learning (Byram, 1997; Guilherme,2002, as cited in Corbett, 2003).Through intercultural language educations, learners are expected to serve as “mediators between different social groups that use different languages and language varieties” (Corbett,2003).However, intercultural language education is being considered to be in its infancy, especially in China, the theory,research and practice in this field are still evolving.

1.2 Theory Basis of the Development of ILE

In this section, it will briefly examine the relationship between language and culture,thus to show why the teaching of culture should constitute an integral part of the English language curriculum in ILE.

Language and culture, intrinsically dependent on each other, have evolved together through the history.Their mutual interdependence can find proof in the rise of civilization and human communication.

Edward Sapir in the 1920s made the conclusion that language and the culture of its speakers can not be analyzed separately.Language can be seen as a way to describe and represent human experience and understanding of the world (Sapir, 1921, 1961,as cited in Hinkel, 2001: 3), and members of a language community share systems of beliefs and assumptions, which underlie their constructions of the world (ibid.).According to Spair-wholf Hypothesis, the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave.That is to say,different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.

From the ethnographers’ point of view,language and culture are from the beginning inseparably connected.They believe language acquisition does not follow a universal sequence, but differs across cultures.Generally speaking, languages have their certain origins,and different languages may reflect different cultures, different cultures entail different language expressions (Dai, 2002).In the light of culture theory, language is often viewed as a complex system that reflects what meanings are attached to behaviors and how they are expressed (Gardner, 1984).Kramsch (1993)puts forward that every time we use language we perform a cultural act.Kramsch (2000:3) defines language as “the principle means whereby we conduct our social lives.When it is used for communication, it is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways.” She summarizes the relationship between language and culture as “language expresses cultural reality; language embodies cultural reality;language symbolizes cultural reality.”

The implication of the link between language and culture for the language education are evident.Language teaching and learning is culture teaching and learning.Many students and even teachers regard language only as a communication tool—a method people use to refer to the objects and ideas of their physical and social world.From this point,languages are sets of words tied together by rules, and learning a foreign language is the simple process of substituting words and rules to get the same meaning with a different tool(Bennett, 1993: 16-21).This kind of thinking can lead to being a “fluent fool”.A fluent fool describes someone who speaks a foreign language fluently but doesn’t understand the social or philosophical content of that language.These people are likely to get into trouble when communicate with native people of that language.Lacking the understanding of the target culture usually cause confusions and complications.Eventually, the fluent fool may develop a negative attitude towards the native speakers whose language they understand but whose culture continues to confuse them.“To avoid a fluent fool, we need to understand completely the cultural dimension of language”(Bennett, 1993: 18).

1.3 Ultimate Goal of ILE

The ultimate goal of ILE is that language learners develop intercultural communicative competence as well as language competence and they are able to communicate successfully in another language.

The ultimate goal of an intercultural approach to language teaching is not so much“native speaker competence” but rather an“intercultural communicative competence”(Byram, 1997; Guilherme, 2002, as cited in Corbett, 2003).But what intercultural competence exactly is? Although this concept has been used widely, there is no consensus about what it is.Some researchers stress global knowledge, others emphasize sensitivity,and still others point to certain skills.In the fields of social psychology and studies of communication, intercultural competence is seen in social effectiveness (i.e., the ability to achieve instrumental and social goals) and appropriateness (i.e., suitable communication in a given situation in a particular culture)(Martine, 1993).Kramsch (1993) says IC is the ability to create for oneself a comfortable third place.According to Fantini (1997), although many aspects of IC competence are presented,three principle themes emerge: the ability to establish relations; the ability to communicate with minimal loss or distortion; the ability to achieve or attain a level of compliance among those involved.According to Crozet and Liddicoat (1999), IC is the ability to create foroneself a comfortable third place between one’s first linguaculture and the target linguaculture.Corbett (2003: 2) indicates intercultural communicative competence includes the ability to understand the language and behavior of the target community, and explain it to members of the “home” community—and vice versa.Byram offers a comprehensive definition of an intercultural speaker:

An intercultural speaker is someone who can operate their linguistic competence and their sociolinguistic competence and their socialinguistic awareness of the relationship between language and the context in which it is used, in order to manage interaction across cultural boundaries, to anticipate misunderstandings caused by difference in values, meanings and beliefs, and thirdly, to cope with the affective as well as cognitive demands of engagement with otherness.(Byram, 1995)

To gain the intercultural communicative competence, language learners are required to master their native cultures too.Without the fully understanding of the native culture, they can not make connections and comparisons thus they will not be able to figure out the cultural differences.

2.Challenges for China’s College English Teachers in Achieving ILE

English is the most popular and commonly taught foreign language in China.It is made compulsory in the curricula from secondary schools to colleges and universities.With the fast development of globalization, international communications have become more and more frequent in China.The society is in great need of human resources who have a good command of foreign language and culture and are able to communicate with people from different countries.If our students are expected to use their language skills to genuinely comprehend and communicate in the global village, intercultural communicative competence is crucial.Thus intercultural approach should be adopted in English language education in China.

In intercultural language teaching and learning, teachers have a very significant role to play.They are responsible for creating an environment that encourages students to develop intercultural communicative competence.They are not only the instructors and organizers of the class, but also the researchers and learners, with much to contribute to the development of language education.

According to Liddicoat et al.(2004),intercultural language learning begins with the teacher’s understanding of “his/her primary enculturation in relation to his/her target languages and cultures”.To adopt and implement intercultural approach to English education, China’s College English teachers,with their bi-lingual skills and even multi-cultural knowledge and experiences, are still facing a number of great challenges.Such challenges consist of understanding the language itself, the difficulty in understanding and teaching culture,designing practical classroom activities and selecting content.

2.1 Understanding English Language

English language is unique.The acronym of EIIL—English as an international/intranational language was put forward by linguists in Honolulu at a conference in 1978.Two uses of English were raised by the participants.One is for international purposes and the other is for intranational purpose.Thus English has two unique features that other languages may not have.One is that it associates with many cultures in both English-speaking countries and non-English speaking countries.The other is that it has many variations.English, like other languages is inseparable from Anglo-American cultures,but English is also employed to represent the cultures of many countries.This paradox always confuses many Chinese English teachers.However, this does not mean English is a linguistic tool that can be loaded with any culture.And there is no culture-free English that can be taught and learned.Chinese college English teachers should realize that the existence of varieties of English is a rich source for learning foreign culture.The concept of teaching “standard English” should be changed.To understand the English language would be the first challenge for Chinese teachers.

2.2 Understanding and Comparing Cultures

College English teachers face challenges in understanding both English and Chinese cultures and the cultural differences between them.ILE places culture teaching at the core of the language teaching.To become competent intercultural language educators, “teachers should develop not only the linguistic, but also the communicative, and even the intercultural competence; they have to be able to analyze and interpret their own and the foreign culture”(Kramsch, 2003, as cited in Wang, 2006).So college English teachers should not only be familiar with English culture, but they also should be clear about Chinese culture if they want to achieve intercultural language teaching goals.

Since English is a language associated with many cultures, English teachers should not ignore the differences between varieties of English and their cultural meaning.Chinese college English teachers usually teach English according to the textbook.Since textbooks have been occupying a special position in Chinese classes, “at administrative level, more concerns are given to the completion of text content rather than the quality of instruction”(Wang, 2006: 80).However, textbooks of English culture are usually about American and English cultures.It seems to students that English language is only related to America and UK.These cultures in the textbook are usually culture facts, the static culture, such as festivals, the customs of English speaking countries.English culture teaching in class is rather limited both in quantity and range.Therefore, teachers are responsible to broaden students’ mind by introducing wide range of English cultures in the process of language teaching.

Intercultural language teaching implies that culture teaching is not exclusively teaching about another linguaculture, it is also teaching the learners’ native linguaculture by contrasting it to the target linguaculture (Crozet & Liddicoat,1999: 115).China has a long history of nearly five thousand years.Chinese students who learn English for future intercultural communication are endowed with the responsibility to introduce Chinese culture to the world.They should be able to discuss Chinese culture in proper English.English teachers should help students to realize the similarities as well as differences between English culture and Chinese culture.Only through comparisons can students better understand both foreign cultures and appreciate home culture, thus to identify their own place in communication.

2.3 Integrate Culture Teaching with Language Teaching

ILE challenges the traditionally-trained English teachers to integrate culture teaching into English language skills training.Cultureteaching should not be taught separately because culture is integrated closely with language.

Most college English teachers were trained in the traditional way; their experiences of English learning and teaching have influenced them deeply.Having never been instructed by interculturally competent teachers, they regard themselves as culturally incompetent in English language.Although they understand that language and culture are related and culture should be taught in the process of language teaching, they are afraid to teach culture because they think they do not know enough about it.Most of teachers favor intensive reading classes in which listening, reading, speaking or writing skills are usually taught, because they think they can avoid culture teaching in such classes.They do not like to teach the subjects such as English and American culture and literature, because such classes require lots of preparation and courage.Students may ask unexpected questions.Intercultural language teaching requires culture teaching to be integrated in other language skills training.Culture and language skills cannot be taught separately because “Quite simple language can often be bound up with quite complex culture”(Liddicoat, 2004: 18).Without understanding of the culture in which the language is used, it is impossible to use correct language in different situations.If teachers continue to teach English language like this, students will experience barrier in communication.Here is an example of the writer’s own experience.One of her students offended an American guest in an international exchange program by saying,“let’s have a rest, you must be very tired, you are old.” The writer fully understood what her student means because what he said was quite courteous in Chinese.It meant, “if you are tired, we can take a little rest, since you are getting on in years”.Unfortunately, the student interpreted the meaning too literally.It gave the impression that he thought the elder person would collapse at any minute if they did not take an immediate rest.He failed to realize that in the west there is an enormous value placed on being young and many people simply can not accept that they are growing old.Such failures in communication are frequently seen when the students are involved in international programs.College English teachers should be responsible for these failures to certain extent and they are required to develop the competence to start teaching culture while teaching language.

2.4 lntercultural Task Design Difficulties

College English teachers face challenges in designing classroom tasks to achieve the goal of ILE.“Although there are models and teaching methods proposed by famous foreign scholars, the Chinese language teachers must adapt them to the situation in China” (Holliday,1994; Lessard-Clouston, 1996, as cited in Chen, 1999).However, since most of them are inexperienced in teaching English as a foreign language from intercultural perspective, how to adopt them remains a great difficulty in practical situation.

In China, the leading role of the teacher in the classroom has been recognized.Teacher is often regarded as the center of teaching practice.The teacher often feeds the students with knowledge, and students are passive receivers.English is made compulsory in curricula to freshmen and sophomores in Chinese colleges.It might not be possible to divide them into so many groups to perform intercultural tasks in class.English class is always a big class (usually 100 students)composed of students of different majors.In order to control the whole class, it seems that the traditional way of teaching is favorable.If the teacher want to make the class learner-centered, English teacher need to be very careful in designing such classroom activities as group discussion.Because students always cannot help to use their native language to discuss when they are not under the monitor of the teacher.Too many students in one class is the problem that teachers can not solve by themselves, so how to design the classroom activity in a creative way needs college English teachers to speculate.In addition,these students in one class usually come from different cities with different English levels.In operating the intercultural task, Chinese English learners are often criticized as inactive learners in EFL classroom.They are often described as“passive,” “rote,” “non-critical thinkers” (Guest,2002).It is the truth that Chinese students do not like to open mouth during the class.They pretend to know everything by keeping silent.

To design appropriate intercultural tasks require teachers’ great efforts and enthusiasm,as well as students cooperation in class,however, at administrative level, more concerns are given to the completion of text content rather than the quality of instruction.Students’English competence is still assessed by the results of CET-4, CET-6, TEM-4,TEM-8.Most of the students who learn English do not have the opportunity to communicate with native English speakers in Chinese colleges; they learn English to get certificates of exams in the hope of getting a good job.In achieving the goals of ILE, Chinese college English teachers struggle in the dilemma.

2.5 Selecting Content for Students

College English teachers face challenges in selecting culturally specific teaching content for the students to develop intercultural competence.Teaching content plays an important role in intercultural language learning.

Chinese college English teaching relies too much on the textbook because teachers always believe that the textbook plays an important role in English Language Teaching(ELT), particularly in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom.However, the English textbooks in many colleges, especially in the less developed areas in China are outdated.Such textbooks can not support to achieve intercultural language learning.Thus teachers are required to decide what sorts of content are the most appropriate and useful in order to achieve intercultural goals.Liddicoat (2004: 20-22) lists out a set of principles for selecting content.Such principles emphasize the cultural content should be linked to language because culture is bound up with language in multiple and complex way;cultural content should assists in developing the relevant learning strategies and skills of noticing, comparison and reflection; cultural content should not only be the facts to be memorized but should allow learners to make connections between their home culture and the target culture (ibid).Although there are lots of cultural materials online and in book shops everywhere, teachers should learn to select the appropriate ones.They need to build up the connections between the textbooks and the materials they selected.They are facing challenges in choosing the appropriate materials for student of different levels.

In achieving intercultural language education, Chinese college English teachers face challenges from different aspects.To educate the students become intercultural competent learners, teachers first should be able to notice, compare and reflect on both Chinese and English languages and cultures.They should be the models of students.They are expected to be culturally objective rather than being ethnocentric or using stereotypes in teaching.Teachers should learn to continue to learn in order to keep up with the developmentof language education development.Inactive students and big classes are the obstacles in the task design process.Finding resources for teaching language and culture in an integrated fashion has been another challenge for Chinese college English teachers.The nation’s English curriculum assessment needs to be improved to help achieve the goal of ILE.

3.Conclusion

This paper has attempted to understand the concept of ILE through its developing environment, theoretical background, and teaching and learning goals.ILE, with its advantages, appeals to those who seek a more humanistic approach to language teaching and learning.However, the adoption of it raises important issues for teacher training, material development, and testing and evaluation.Its development and completion require language educators’ consecutive efforts.Chinese English educators should have more professional researches on it and the Ministry of Education in China should also make efforts if they want to keep up with the development of language education in the world.

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