摘 要: 写出正确的英文句子是大学英语写作的基础。中国学生英语作文中的很多典型句式错误主要是由母语迁移所造成的。本文通过例句分析讨论了学生英文写作中出现的典型句法错误,以期帮助学生克服母语干扰,提高写作水平。
关键词: 大学英语写作 常见句法问题 例句分析
一、引言
英文写作能力的提高取决于语言基本功和写作能力两个主要因素,而具备较强的英语语言基本功是学习英语写作首先要解决的问题。在大学英语写作教学实践中,使我认识到,通过一段时间的培养和训练,学生的写作意识和写作技能的提高往往较快,而语言表达能力即学生遣词造句的能力并没有随着写作技能(如段落扩展方法、段落统一和连贯、内容充实、体裁意识等)的提高而有所改善,学生作文中措词问题、句法问题导致他们无法准确、流利地表达自己的思想观点,并且一直是制约学生写作能力提高的瓶颈。学生书面语言表达能力低下除了表现在词汇量小、语法使用错误,更主要的障碍源于学生受汉语思维和表达习惯的影响,造成语言负迁移现象严重(王苹,2001)。受汉语干扰引起的语言错误往往涉及多个层面,鉴于篇幅所限,本文作者将着重对学生作文中常出现的句法问题进行探讨,以期帮助学生积极克服类似句法错误,从根本上突破瓶颈,提高写作能力。
二、分析与讨论
中国学生英语作文中的典型句式错误主要是由母语负迁移所造成的。他们在英文写作中所用的句子类型较为特殊,形成了中国学生英文写作的一种独特风格(杨玉晨,1994)。这是因为汉语和英语是两种截然不同的语言体系。英语是一种“形合”语言,而汉语是一种“意合”语言。汉语句法关系主要靠词序和语义关系表达,并不追求形式上的完整,往往只求达意而已;英语语法成分都有其独立作用,比较注重句子结构形式的完整和逻辑的合理(毕继万,1994)。中国学生由于受到汉语兼语结构、汉语流水句、省略结构、从句作独立句和汉语主题—述题结构的影响,写出的英语句子具有明显的汉语结构特征,从而造成以下句法错误。
1.受汉语兼语结构影响的谓语堆砌句子
汉语兼语结构指两个或两个以上谓语并列在一起,没有任何形态标记来表明名词和谓项之间的关系或谓项之间的关系,其表现形式为:名词短语(NP)+动词(V)+[名词短语(NP)]+动词(V)+[名词短语(NP)]。英语句子受形态规则的限制,只能有一个谓项。
如(1)*So many troubles haunt in my heart makes me tired ,hard to enjoy it. 句中“haunt” 和“makes” 是两个并列谓项,明显受到汉语兼语结构的影响,不符合英语的句法要求,英语需要通过句式结构的变化来体现语言的逻辑关系。此句可改为:√I was annoyed by so many troubles,which makes it hard for me to enjoy life on campus.下面出现在学生作文中的句子同属这一类型:
(2)*People take online courses acquire more knowledge.
(√People take online courses in order to acquire more knowledge. Or: People who take online courses can acquire more knowledge.)
(3)*Online education become more and more popular is the need of the world.
(√The increasing popularity of online education meets the demand of society.)
(4)*Courage is a kind of inner spirit belongs to every great people.
(√Courage is a kind of inner spirit that belongs to every great people.)
2.受汉语流水句的影响的连续不断的句子( run-on sentence)
汉语流水句由一系列语法完整的句子组成 ,两个或几个没有语法关联的句子间可以只用逗号,一直持续不断地接下去,逻辑关系比较松散。英语两个独立句间不可以使用逗号,否则造成连续不断的英语句子,被视为病句。如(1)*I do’t have the courage to open my mouth because I’m not confident,my oral English is so poor.此句便是受汉语流水句影响的结果。改写时应根据其内在的逻辑关系,决定是使用并列句、主从复合句、还是短语的形式。根据英语表达习惯上句可改为:√My oral English is so poor that I don’t have the courage and confidence to open my mouth.在学生作文中此类病句比比皆是。
(2)*The fact broke my dreams into ruins,the reality states the harsh truth,college life is not as good as I expected.
(√The fact smashes my dream.The reality states the harsh truth: college life is not as good as I expected.)
(3)*On the way I rushed to the classroom,my breath became faster and breathless,my legs were tiring and painful,my feet were too heavy to rise.
(√On the way I rushed to the classroom,I became quite out of breath,with my legs sore and painful,my feet too heavy to rise.)
(4)*Now,I still remember clearly what I did that morning,I got up very early,went over once again what I was going to teach.
(√Now,I still remember clearly what I did that morning. I got up very early,went over once again what I was going to teach.)
3. 受汉语主题—述题句影响的主谓不一致的句子
形合的英语是主语显著的语言(subject prominent),主题往往就是句子的主语;主语和谓项是句子结构的主要成分;而意合的汉语是主题显著的语言(topic prominent),主题(topic)和述题(comment)是构成句子的基本结构。其主题往往并非就是句子的主语。因此,在主题—述题结构中,首先陈述的是所要论证的事物,然后对其加以评论,这是典型的汉语句子表述方式(徐余龙)。在这类结构中,如“夏天很难保藏食品……”就是典型的主题句,按照汉语思维,“夏天”是主题,后面是评论主题怎样。受此影响,学生往往误以为汉语的主题就是英语的主语,造出“(1)Summer is difficult to preserve food.”的句子。其实,英语的主语是“保藏食品”,“夏天”只是时间状语,正确的表达应该是“It is difficult to preserve food in summer.”。这类句式错误在学生作文中也较常见。例如:
(2)*Chinese learning English have many problems.
(√Chinese may encounter many problems in learning English.)
(3)*His basket and football are both good.
(√He is good at both basketball and football.)
(4)*The way that western people think is difficult for me.
(√It is difficult for me to understand the westerners’ thinking mode.)
4.受汉语省略结构或从句作独立句影响的非完整句(Sentence Fragment)
非完整句将句子的某一部分或成分当作一个完整的句子使用。典型的英文句子一般都包含主语和谓语两个部分,构成一个完整句。而汉语的句式结构往往比较松散随意,从形式上看,汉语句子中各成分间没有形态的差异,句子成分省略较普遍,受其影响,中国学生用英语作文时常常使用非完整句(亦称“破句”)。它或是缺少主语,或是缺少谓语,或者只是一个单独的从属分句。非完整句错误通常有以下几种情况。
4?郾1缺主语。例如:
(1)*First of all,of course,is the food.
(√First of all,the biggest problem I have to face is adapting myself to the food here.)
*You can study at home or office. only need a computer.
(√You can study at home or office only with the aid of a computer.)
4?郾2将介词短语或非谓语动词短语当作句子。例如:
(3)*With the question settled. They were happy and relaxed.
(4)*People waving flags and cheering. Lined the streets for parade.
在以上例句中,介词短语(with the question settled)、现在分词短语(waving flags and cheering) 被分别当作完整句子,出现了非完整句错误。正确的句子应该为:
√With the quest ion settled,they were happy and relaxed.
√People waving flags and cheering lined the street s for parade.
4?郾3将从属子句当作句子。
汉语中 ,有时从句可以独立存在 ,而英语中从句不能单独存在,否则就成了没有主句的非完整句。例如:
(1)*The man was racing down the street.Because he was late.
(2)* He failed to pass the College Entrance Exam.Which disappointed his parents.
在以上两例中,原因状语从句(because he was late) 和定语从句(which disappointed his parents)被分别当作完整的句子,形成非完整句的错误。应将它们改正为:
√The man was racing down the street,because he was late.
√He failed to pass the College Entrance Exam,which disappointed his parents.
5.垂悬修饰(dangling modifiers)
非谓语动词(-ing形式、 -ed形式、不定式)和形容词短语、介词短语作状语修饰主句时,它们的逻辑主语必须与句子的主语一致,与主句中的主语有逻辑主语关系,否则构成一种语病,叫垂悬结构。例如:
(1)*Unable to answer the teacher’s question,his face turned red.
形容词短语“looking out of the window”的逻辑主语只能是人,因为“回答”这个动作只能由人发出。因此,此处形容词短语的逻辑主语与主句的主语不一致,形成垂悬结构,汉语中多见这种表达“由于无法回答老师的提问,他的脸红了”,致使学生用英语表达时产生了负迁移。此句可改为:√ Unable to answer the teacher’s question,he blushed. 或:Because he was unable to answer the teacher’s question,his face turned red.见更多垂悬结构病句:
(2)*Looking out of the window,the white snowflakes fell down from the sky.
(√When I looked out of the window,I saw the white snowflakes falling down from the sky.)
(3)*To learn English well,much practice is necessary.
(√To learn English well,we need much practice.)
(4)*Stepping into the boat,my camera dropped into the water.
(√Stepping into the boat,I had my camera dropped into the water.)
6?郾平行结构成分不一致的句子
平行结构(parallel structure)是将两个或两个以上意义相关、层次相同、句法功能相同的词、词组、分句等成串排列,以表达同类的行为、思想、概念的一种结构序列,它以相似的语法形式表达相似的思想。平行结构在构成上可以有不同层面的平行,从单词、短语的平行到从句的平行,在语中不同词类均可以有它的平等结构,平行结构最显著的特点是各个并列成分之间在句法结构上有一致性。因此,在写作时,一定要避免平行结构各个并列成分语法形式不一致。由于汉语里使用在使用词与词、短语与短语间的平行结构是对词性的一致性没有明显的要求,加之汉语本身又没有词形的变化,导致中国学生使用英语平行结构时犯语法结构不一致的句法错误。例如:(1)The young woman is pretty and has brains.平等结构的一致性要求作表语的两个成分具有相同的语法形式,这样才能使句子结构保持平衡和协调,故此句可改为:The young woman is both pretty and smart. 或:The young woman has both looks and brains. 更多例句如:
(1)*Speaking English for learners needs some knowledge,great confidence and not fearing of making mistakes.
(√It takes knowledge,confidence and courage for learners to speak English well.)
(2)*Lack of money,can’t understand lessons,feeling lonely,which is the most terrible frustration at college?
(√Lack of money,difficulties in study,loneliness——which is the worst frustration at college?)
(3)*To get along with their parents,teenagers need to be patient,tactful,to display tolerance.
(√To get along with their parents,teenagers need to be patient,tactful,tolerant.)
(4)*My driving instructor told me to keep both hands on the wheel,to use caution at all times,and don’t take my eyes off the road.
(√My driving instructor told me to keep both hands on the wheel,to use caution at all times,and not to take my eyes off the road.)
三、结语
由于受汉语言表达习惯的干扰,中国学生在英语作文时常常出现以上句法错误。对这类现象,教师可以通过归类法,分析、对比此类句式使学生充分认识到汉英语言表达上的差异。此外,还应鼓励学生多读、多听地道的英语材料,通过高质量的语言输入增强语感,养成写作时用英语思维的良好习惯。此外,大学生应积累和掌握实用、正宗的英语词组、短语和句型,多读、多背一些好的谚语、俗语、美文佳句。大脑里储存了足够多的句型,写作时就可以信手拈来,灵活调取。认识到了汉英句法的差异,学生只要注意平时积累,培养英语语感,就可以很好地克服本族语带来的语言障碍,提高英语的写作能力。
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