A discussion on practices and characteristics of science and technology diplomacy in twentieth-century China

Zheng Li

National Academy of Innovation Strategy,CAST,China

Fujuan Cui and Zining Wang

China Centre for International Science and Technology Exchange,China

Abstract Scientists and diplomats have significant differences in professional skills,activity time and work content,but they should work together.With the deepening impact of science and technology (S&T)on socio-economic development and international relations,S&T has become a crucial component of national strategies,particularly for diplomacy.There is a need for scientific evidence and advice,meaning that mastering moreknowledge and skills inS&Twouldbe helpful in negotiations.This paper analyses the ideas of S&T diplomacy,including a review of its 40-year history in China,its definition(with detailed connotations)and its characteristics.The paper focuses on the significant role of people-to-people communication in S&T,which may inform future work.Five suggestions are given to strengthen the strategic planning of S&T diplomacy:(1)A more clarified,strategic goal of future-oriented S&T diplomacy is required;(2)It is important to build a theoretical system for China to describe S&T diplomacy;(3)The creation of a global S&T cooperation map that adapts to the new type of international relations would be valuable;(4) Fairness and justice shall be maintained,while a reform of the global S&T governance system is promoted;(5)It is a must to adhere to bottom-line thinking and strengthen risk prediction and emergency responses.

Keywords Science and technology,people-to-people exchange,science diplomacy,history

1.Background

Scientists and diplomats have significant differences in their professional skills and work time and content,but they must work together.On the one hand,with the deepening impact of science and technology (S&T) on socio-economic development and international relations,S&T has become a crucial component of national strategies,particularly for diplomacy.There is more need for scientific evidence and advice,meaning that more S&T knowledge and skills would be helpful for international negotiations.On the other hand,in the fastchanging world of S&T,scientists and engineers should participate in diplomatic and global activities.There are many diplomatic issues involving S&T.It requires more flexible ‘smart power’and strong support from national diplomatic institutions and the skilful mediation of diplomats when it comes to such issues as S&T development,the facilitation of exchanges between S&T personnel,the construction of large scientific research facilities,international organizational cooperation,and the formulation of common rules and standards in S&T.

Therefore,S&T and diplomacy overlap,which is an inevitable result from a holistic and systematic view,and that overlap is increasingly important in modern international relations.The combination of S&T and diplomacy (that is,S&T diplomacy) has new connotations.As diplomacy includes the political activities of sovereign countries,S&T diplomacy could be explained as activities dealing with S&T issues between countries.However,a more precise definition is needed for a deeper understanding of the concept.Based on a review of the history of China’s S&T diplomacy,we propose a new definition of S&T diplomacy and summarize its characteristics in the context of closer international exchanges.

2.Three stages of China’s S&T diplomacy in the twentieth century

The history of S&T diplomacy,including S&T exchanges and cooperation,can be reflected in the process of reform and opening-up of China,and can be generally divided into three stages: breaking through the blockade (1949–1977),resuming normal exchanges and cooperation (1978–1988),and difficult development in complex situations(1989–2000) (Luo,2018).The S&T diplomacy activities at each stage bear distinctive characteristics of the times and historical imprints.However,the national S&T strategy and foreign policy goals were always implemented as the principle in those activities.

2.1 Breaking through the blockade(1949–1977)

The founding of the People’s Republic of China(PRC)in 1949 ushered in a new era in China’s international relations,ending the humiliating diplomatic history of the country.The new government needed to win the recognition and respect of the international community,and S&T cooperation became an important channel for China to show its progressive and developing image.Against the background of the confrontation between the United States (US)and the Soviet Union and the changing international situation,China pursued an independent foreign policy of peace.Opposing imperialism and hegemonism,maintaining national security and maintaining world peace were the basic goals of China’s diplomacy during this period.In pursuit of these basic diplomatic goals,the focus of China’s foreign exchanges was adjusted to changes in the international situation.The field of S&T diplomacy,as an important force in China’s diplomatic work,was the theatre for various work in line with the adjustment of the country’s diplomatic strategic focus.

Adhering to independence while learning from other countries.In the early days of the PRC,according to the international situation at that time and China’s historical situation,China proposed three basic foreign policy principles: ‘start anew’,‘clean up the house before entertaining guests’ and‘be one-sided’.In this context,in line with the principle of not being arrogant in international exchanges and learning the strengths of other nations,China established S&T cooperation and exchange with other countries as the basic policy of S&T diplomacy,including learning the advanced technology of the Soviet Union,Eastern Europe and other countries.In the autumn of 1956,the Joint Nuclear Research Institute led by the Soviet Union was established.Its main research directions included highenergy physics experiments,nuclear structure,nuclear reactions,neutron physics and theoretical physics.The Chinese government sent Wang Ganchang,Zhou Guangzhao and more than 100 other S&T workers to the institute.Work and study enhanced the friendship between the Chinese S&T personnel and researchers from other socialist countries.

Opposing the hegemony of the US and the Soviet Union and uniting with partners in Asia,Africa and Latin America.In the 1960s,international dynamics were turbulent.China was under the double pressure of the hostility of the US and the breakdown of relations with the Soviet Union.While opposing the hegemony of the US and the Soviet Union,China’s diplomacy insists on the principle of ‘for the benefits of the Chinese people and the people of the world’.Starting from the fundamental interests of the PRC,China targeted strengthening extensive ties with the people of the Third World,doing more work and making friends.The S&T diplomatic front worked around this basic foreign policy.China established and developed S&T cooperation relations with 24 Asian and African countries and signed four intergovernmental bilateral S&T agreements.The Beijing Science Symposium in 1964 was the first large-scale international academic conference held in China;367 scientists from 44 countries and regions in Asia,Africa,Latin America and Oceania attended.At the 1966 Summer Physics Symposium,144 scientists from 33 countries and one regional academic organization attended.Chairman Mao Zedong met with the representatives of scientists from various countries who attended the meeting.Besides international exchanges,China also provided technical assistance to countries in Asia,Africa and Latin America and won the friendship of the Third World countries.

Allying with the US against the Soviet Union and implementing the ‘one line’ and ‘large area’diplomatic strategy.In the 1970s,China–Soviet relations deteriorated,and the US adjusted its strategy and showed its will to improve China–US relations,which gradually embarked on the road of normalization.China’s diplomatic work began to unite all available forces,including the US and Japan.China established diplomatic relations with many countries in the world,participated in international affairs and opposed hegemonism.In this context,the Chinese scientific community actively promoted exchanges with Western countries.Following the restoration of its legal rights in the United Nations in 1971,China’s S&T cooperation under the UNESCO framework began to develop.It established contacts with Western countries in the form of non-governmental S&T exchanges.From 1972 to 1973,scientific delegations from China and the US exchanged visits.From 1977,scientists such as Li Zhengdao,Yang Zhenning and Ding Zhaozhong were invited to visit many times,and they worked hard to cultivate S&T talent for China.The Chinese Medical Association was invited to send a delegation to visit the US in October 1972,which was the first scientific delegation.Chinese scientists also participated in international S&T affairs and united and supported the progressive forces of the international scientific community.In May 1949,the president of the World Federation of Scientific Workers (WFSW),Frédéric Joliot-Curie,was persecuted by the French authorities,and the Chinese Association of Scientists expressed its protest.In October 1950,the US government illegally arrested Chinese scientists Qian Xuesen and Zhao Zhongyao.The Chinese government strongly protested.In April 1951,the All-China Federation of Science and Technology sent a delegation to attend the second plenary meeting of the WFSW.The meeting elected Li Siguang as the vice-chairman of the WFSW.

2.2 Restoring normal exchanges and cooperation (1978–1988)

Since the reform and opening-up policy,China’s diplomatic work has created a new situation.Major adjustments were made in its foreign policy,and the policy of independent and peaceful diplomacy was further improved.China proposed an era of peace and development and regarded maintaining world peace,promoting economic development and creating a favourable international environment for socialist modernization as a basic policy.

In 1978,China began to implement the reform and opening-up policy and resume normal exchanges with Western countries.In particular,the National Science Conference in March 1978 ushered in a‘spring of science’ together with non-governmental S&T exchanges and communication among S&T communities.Zhou Peiyuan delivered a speech at the conference on behalf of the China Association for Science and Technology(CAST)and its affiliated societies.He proposed that CAST and various specialized societies should be more active in carrying out international academic exchange activities.In this stage,China signed bilateral agreements on S&T cooperation with France,West Germany,the United Kingdom (UK),Italy,the US and other Western countries,and international S&T exchanges and cooperation were fully launched.

Restoring bilateral S&T cooperation mechanisms.Starting from July 1978,the governments of China and the US have engaged in space,aviation,education,basic science,agriculture,health,energy,geology,earthquake and atmosphere activities.An American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) delegation visited China for the first time in November 1978,laying the foundation for the signing of the China–US Science and Technology Cooperation Agreement in 1979.From 1980 to 1989,China and the US signed cooperation agreements in 27 fields,including for exchanges of students,exchanges of scholars,agricultural technology,high-energy physics and atmospheric studies,and conducted nearly 500 intergovernmental S&T cooperation exchanges.These exchanges promoted the progress of China–US relations.China’s S&T cooperation with European countries also achieved significant development.In January 1978,an S&T agreement between China and France was signed in Beijing.It was the first intergovernmental agreement on S&T cooperation signed between China and a Western country.Under the framework of the agreement,the China–France Joint Committee for Scientific and Technological Cooperation was established(National Energy Administration,2011).After that,China’s S&T cooperation with major European countries was restored and developed.Later,China signed intergovernmental S&T cooperation agreements with West Germany (1978),the UK (1978)and Italy (1978).

Organizing international S&T conferences.In 1980,CAST resumed its work on international S&T conferences.By the end of 1990,CAST and its affiliated societies had held more than 1300 international conferences in China,received more than 3000 visiting groups,and sent delegations to participate in more than 1500 academic exchanges,involving nearly 6000 people.The conferences and other activities enabled the Chinese S&T community to keep abreast of the latest S&T developments abroad.

Participating in the affairs of international S&T organizations.In 1979,the Chinese Chemical Society joined the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.After complicated communication and coordination,at the 19th plenary meeting of the International Council of Scientific Unions (now the International Science Council) in September 1982,CAST was restored to its seat as a national member of the largest international non-governmental S&T organization.In November 1981,CAST joined the World Federation of Engineering Organizations.In 1988,the 22nd Congress of the International Council of Scientific Unions was held in China.By the end of 1990,the number of Chinese scientists serving in international organizations reached 350.

2.3 Difficult development in complex situations (1989–2000)

From the late 1980s to the early 1990s,the international diplomatic landscape changed.Throughout drastic changes in Eastern Europe,the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War,China’s diplomacy withstood enormous tests and safeguarded the overall situation of national stability and development.After Deng Xiaoping gave a speech during his tour of China’s southern provinces in 1992,China’s reform and opening-up reached a new level.Under the trend of world multipolarization and economic globalization,China’s S&T diplomacy was proactive,playing the role of stabilizer,properly handling complex issues and opening up new areas of cooperation.

Stabilizing bilateral cooperative relations.In December 1992,China and Russia signed the Agreement on Scientific and Technological Cooperation.In 1994,China and Japan signed the Agreement on Environmental Protection Cooperation.In February 1995,China and the US signed the Agreement on Cooperation in Energy Efficiency and the Development and Application of Renewable Energy Technology.In June 1998,China and the US signed the Agreement on Cooperation in the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Technology.In May 1997,China and France signed the China–France Joint Statement,the Agreement on Cooperation in Environmental Protection,the Agreement on Cooperation in the Development of Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy,the Agreement on Cooperation in Health and Medical Sciences,and the Agreement on Cooperation in Research and the Peaceful Use of Outer Space.In 1999,the first Earth resources satellite—jointly developed by China and Pakistan—was successfully launched.

Carrying out multilateral cooperation.Economic and technological cooperation under the Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) mechanism is the focus of multilateral S&T diplomacy.In November 1996,Jiang Zemin pointed out at the Fourth APEC Leaders’ Informal Meeting: ‘An important aspect of economic and technological cooperation is cooperation in the field of science and technology.’He suggested that we should‘establish a network of science and technology industrial parks in APEC countries to encourage the exchange of experience and information among S&T industrial parks in the Asia–Pacific region’ (Ministry of Commerce,2002).Subsequently,China opened several S&T industrial parks in Beijing,Xi’an and Suzhou,expanded economic and technological cooperation with APEC members and promoted the development of high-tech industries.In April 2000,the World Business Incubation and Technology Innovation Conference was held in Shanghai.

Carrying out foreign exchanges.In April 1995,Tian Changlin,the Chairman of AAAS,sent a letter to Zhu Guangya,the President of CAST,stating that AAAS hoped to restore its cooperative relationship with CAST.In December of the same year,Tian was invited to visit China.Meetings of high-level people in S&T circles restored normal relations.In addition,mutual recognition of engineers between China and the rest of the world was launched.CAST signed cooperation agreements with the German Association of Engineers,the Romanian Federation of Engineers,the Polish Federation of Engineering Societies,and the Russian Federation of Engineering Societies.High-level international S&T conferences were held in China,including the 28th International Science Council Plenary Session,the 24th International Congress of Mathematicians,the 15th International Plant Protection Congress,and the 15th World Congress of Pharmacology.

3.Summary of the main contributions of China’s S&T diplomacy in the twentieth century

After the founding of the PRC,the new people’s regime needed the recognition and respect of the international community.Therefore,it needed to show,through various channels,that it was progressive and prosperous,and S&T was an important part of that effort.Chinese S&T organizations and people—through participating in international organizations’ activities,developing relations with organizations in other countries and cooperating with other countries to hold large-scale international conferences—tried to shape the scientific image of China and its status as a major power,along with national S&T diplomacy.Through these activities,China achieved results in acquiring foreign S&T information,grasping the world’s S&T development trends and promoting national S&T development.

China is also trying to contribute to the formulation of rules for international S&T cooperation and exchanges.In the early days of the PRC,China was relatively weak in S&T,and there were few rules for international S&T cooperation.But China held bilateral exchanges and academic conferences,hosted large-scale international S&T conferences and joined international S&T organizations.In these activities,China clearly expressed the ‘One China’ principle,which has always been the guiding principle and fundamental rule in China’s international S&T activities.

After the reform and opening-up,China’s socialist modernization drive entered a critical period,and the S&T awareness of the whole society was further enhanced.Chinese S&T workers focused on rejuvenating the country through science,education and sustainable development.They deepened bilateral relations and cooperation with S&T groups in various countries and further promoted nongovernmental S&T exchanges by organizing large-scale international academic conferences.Many cooperation projects and exchange activities focused on the development of the national economy,technical exchanges,engineering education and certification.Much energy and resources were invested in these areas,which opened a new situation for bilateral S&T and economic cooperation.Many international academic conferences were held in China for the first time,which effectively promoted the development of academic exchanges and expanded China’s influence in the international academic community.Overseas Chinese scientists were encouraged to return to China to participate in academic activities.

International exchanges also played a role in promoting the construction of domestic society.For example,to meet the needs of international exchanges,many disciplines established Chinese echelons of international academic organizations,and some of these groups have developed into national societies.To facilitate participation in the activities of the Lithosphere Federation Committee of the International Council of Scientific Unions,and to promote lithosphere research in China,eight societies(including the Geological Society)initiated the establishment of the‘National Committee of the China Lithosphere Plan’ under the organization and promotion of CAST.

By the end of 1990,CAST had established S&T exchanges and cooperation with more than 40 organizations in more than 20 countries,and signed 36 bilateral cooperation agreements.CAST worked with its affiliated national academic groups and cooperated with national S&T diplomacy to fulfil its role as a nongovernment organization.The number of nongovernment international S&T organizations joined by CAST and its affiliated national societies increased from 71 in 1982 to 213 in 1990.The number of Chinese scientists serving in international nongovernment organizations increased,reaching 350 by the end of 1990.Several well-known Chinese scholars served as chairmen and vice-chairmen of international organizations.In 1980,CAST resumed holding international S&T conferences.By the end of 1990,CAST and its affiliated societies had held more than 1300 international conferences in China,received more than 3000 visiting groups and conducted more than 1500 academic exchanges with nearly 6000 people.These activities played an important role in keeping China’s S&T community abreast of the latest S&T developments abroad.In October 1985,the Asian Symposium on Freshwater Fish Culture was held in Beijing.More than 100 experts from major fish-farming countries in Asia,the US,the Soviet Union and West Germany attended the meeting.

4.Discussion

4.1 Definition of S&T diplomacy

Considering the actual situation of China and the interrelationship between S&T and diplomacy in international organizations and academia,this paper defines S&T diplomacy as an important part of a nation’s overall diplomatic strategy.Specifically,S&T diplomacy refers to international activities about S&T development and cooperation in order to achieve a nation’s S&T strategy and foreign policy goals through bilateral,multilateral or other cooperation channels under a framework or treaty.

The core of this definition is that S&T diplomacy is a new dimension in the establishment of international relations against the background of S&T globalization,which requires the coordination of S&T policy and diplomatic policy.The definition includes governmental S&T diplomacy,public S&T diplomacy and people-to-people exchanges.

The subjects of S&T diplomacy include not only heads of state,heads of government,legislatures,government agencies,people’s organizations and legal entities authorized by the government,but also non-governmental entities undertaking S&T diplomatic tasks,such as industry associations,S&T societies,enterprises,think tanks and media.People in S&T diplomacy include diplomats,public servants in international cooperation and professionals performing S&T diplomatic tasks,most of whom are scientists,engineers or researchers.

To summarize: the essence of S&T diplomacy is to apply appropriate rules to gain a leading position in international S&T affairs.The characteristics of S&T diplomacy can be illustrated as the in-depth participation of S&T personnel,flexible methods and measures and an organic combination of scientific principles and national interests.

4.2 Characteristics of S&T diplomacy

S&T diplomacy has the characteristics of other diplomacy in many aspects,such as principles,positions,methods and means,but it also has certain particularities.

Professional knowledge has a strong influence.Today’s diplomacy involves economic,social,technological,cultural and other aspects,with more S&T content,which is in sharp contrast to the diplomacy of the past,which was limited to political issues.For example,climate change is one of the priorities of the international political agenda,and so climate knowledge and scientific data have become an important part of diplomatic relations.Diplomatic careers are largely determined by the approach and the qualities that should be possessed by those undertaking the career(such as negotiating skills,judgement and statesmanship).As the missions of diplomats have expanded to other areas,such as economics,technology,public health and the environment,successful diplomacy requires the participation of professionals in various fields.Many issues involve cutting-edge and uncertain S&T or need the professional knowledge and collaboration of engineers.Thus,expertise and diplomacy are becoming increasingly closely related.

In-depth participation of S&T personnel is essential.The essence of S&T diplomacy is to use proper rules to achieve a technological voice in the international community.In practice,S&T personnel are not only the proposers of advisory opinions but also the direct negotiators.For example,for technical standards and regulations,scientists and technicians are often workers or committee members negotiating scientific issues.Diplomats and international cooperation officials will also participate in related S&T diplomacy and play a policy-guiding role.When tensions arise in international relations,scientists can,to a certain extent,promote the improvement of relations between countries through dialogue and cooperation.A case in point is the Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs,which was initiated by physicists from the US and the Soviet Union.During the worst period of the Cold War,famous scientists from various countries,including the US and the Soviet Union,played an active role in preventing world nuclear conflicts and promoting nuclear disarmament.Chinese physicist Zhou Peiyuan participated in related activities.The Pugwash Conference and its organizer,Joseph Rotblatt,were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995.

The S&T diplomatic method is more flexible.Approaches to S&T diplomacy should combine flexible negotiating skills with fair,universal knowledge of technologies(Loriol et al.,2008).Unique adaptation methods include holding international S&T conferences.Many countries regard holding high-level international S&T conferences as an important means of S&T diplomacy;they are often called‘Olympic’ international S&T conferences.The head of state of the host country often attends such conferences and delivers speeches,and the local government provides financial support for the conference.Out of the desire to enhance national prestige,some countries have established international S&T awards to gain recognition from the international S&T community.Examples include the Nobel Prize in Sweden,the Abel Prize in Norway and the Alvar Aalto Prize in Finland.

Adhering to scientific principles is combined with safeguarding national interests.S&T diplomacy involves science and diplomacy.Science knows no borders,but diplomacy is the art of negotiating national interests.The aim of the field of S&T is mainly the production of knowledge,and the main body of workers consists of scientists and scientific researchers.Norms formed in scientific research activities include the accepted beliefs,theories,patterns,cases,laws,applications and tools of the scientific community,including not only the theoretical frameworks and rules followed by the scientific community but also its promotion.People build cognitive values based on scientific values.

5.Conclusion

Although the main responsibility for dealing with diplomatic issues is rooted in the government,the means to solve these problems are not limited to the single way of the official administration.Non-governmental exchange and communication in S&T are considered a distinctive feature of S&T diplomacy.There are five main kinds of activities:expand the ‘circle of friends’ in the international S&T circle with a consensus towards cooperation;attract fellows from all over the world to jointly build and share an international S&T cooperation platform;actively participate and speak in global activities regarding S&T governance;provide public resources for popularizing science and promote mutual learning opportunities among different civilizations;and establish a mechanism of S&T exchange to gather strategic consensus.

To strengthen the strategic planning of S&T diplomacy,this paper provides some suggestions and proposals.First,a more clarified,strategic goal for future-oriented S&T diplomacy is required.Second,it is important to build a theoretical system for China to describe S&T diplomacy.Third,a global S&T cooperation map that adapts to the new type of international relations would be valuable.Fourth,fairness and justice should be maintained while a reform of the global S&T governance system is promoted.Finally,bottom-line thinking should be maintained,and the ability to predict risk and respond to emergencies should be strengthened.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research,authorship and/or publication of this article.

Appendix

A summary of the practical cases of China’s S&T diplomacy and exchanges is provided in this appendix.

■1964: Holding large-scale international academic conferences is an important way to unite the world’s progressive scientists and highlight China’s scientific image.An example was the 1964 Beijing Science Symposium,co-sponsored by the China Association for Science and Technology(CAST) and the Beijing Center of the World Federation of Scientific Workers.Scientists from various countries who participated in the symposium conducted exchanges and discussions on striving for and maintaining national independence,developing national economic,cultural and scientific undertakings,improving people’s lives,and promoting S&T cooperation among countries.

■1978:In the late 1970s,CAST worked together with its affiliated national societies to open up channels and establish friendly contacts with S&T groups in other countries,carry out international academic exchanges and cooperation,and facilitate the modernization of China.On 18 March 1978,the National Science Conference was held,and CAST formed a delegation to participate.Deng Xiaoping made an important speech at the opening ceremony,stating that ‘science and technology are primary productive forces’,‘the key to the four modernizations are the modernization of science and technology’,and ‘intellectuals are part of the working class’.On 30 March,Zhou Peiyuan,on behalf of CAST and its affiliated societies,delivered a speech at the conference,proposing that ‘CAST and various specialized societies should be more active in carrying out international academic exchange activities’.The resumption of international S&T exchanges provided a group of Chinese scholars with the opportunity to go abroad.In April,Chinese mathematicians Yang Le and Zhang Guanghou were invited to visit the library of the Department of Mathematics at the University of Lausanne,after attending the International Analysis Conference held in Zurich,Switzerland.Emilio Daddario,the President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS),led a delegation to visit China in November.

■ 1979: In May,CAST Vice President Pei Lisheng led a delegation to visit the US.Kerry Klein,the Executive Director of AAAS,welcomed the delegation.In September,Chinese scientists Lu Jiaxi and Hu Yadong signed to join the International Federation of Pure and Applied Chemistry on behalf of the Chinese Chemical Society in Davos,Switzerland.

■1980:In March,the Second National Congress of CAST was held in Beijing and proved that the important tasks of CAST include carrying out non-governmental international S&T exchange activities,promoting international S&T cooperation and developing friendly exchanges with S&T groups and workers in other countries.In May,CAST Vice President Liu Shuzhou led a delegation to visit Australia and met with the President of Engineers Australia.

■1981: To better serve international exchanges,CAST established the International Exchange Service Office in January.In September,the office and the Chinese Geophysical Society organized a China–US academic discussion on petroleum geophysical exploration.The conference won the praise of the participants for its thoughtful and meticulous management.A certificate of appreciation was issued by the co-organizer of the US side to the participants.In November,CAST joined the World Federation of Engineering Organizations(WFEO).

■1982:In May,the Ancient Chinese Traditional Technology Exhibition was organized by CAST and attracted interest from overseas audiences.After complex communication and coordination,in September,Zhou Peiyuan led a delegation to participate in the 19th General Assembly of the International Council of Scientific Unions held in Cambridge,UK,restoring the national membership of CAST in this largest international civil S&T organization.Since 1982,the exhibition of ancient Chinese traditional technology has been shown in Canada,the US,China’s Hong Kong and other places,attracting a cumulative audience of nearly 4 million people.

■1985: CAST established the China Centre for International Science and Technology Conference (renamed as the China Centre for International Science and Technology Exchange in March 2016),the Association of China–Japan (International) Science and Technology Exchange (renamed the China Association of International Applied Technology Exchange in 1987) and the New Technology Development Center,thus forming a foreign affairs service system.In June,a CAST delegation went to Hong Kong to attend the inaugural meeting of the Hong Kong Association for the Advancement of Science and Technology.In July,CAST Vice President Wang Shuntong led a delegation to visit the Quebec Centre for Industrial Research in Canada.

■ 1986: In January,CAST President Zhou Peiyuan led a delegation to visit Poland,Hungary and West Germany and signed a technical cooperation agreement with the Hungarian Association of Technology and Natural Sciences.In June,CAST hosted a banquet to welcome Hong Kong and Macao S&T workers who attended the Third National Congress of CAST.In July,the first China Youth Space Shuttle Scientific Experiment programme concluded,and foreign scientists attended the awards ceremony.In September,CAST President Qian Xuesen and Vice President Zhang Wei met with representatives of the WFEO Executive Committee.The China Modern Science and Technology Achievement Exhibition was shown in Paris,France.

■1987:In March,CAST President Qian Xuesen visited the UK and communicated with Sir George Porter,President of the Royal Society.Qian also visited West Germany and had talks with the German Research Association.In April,CAST Vice President Zhang Wei visited the Chairman of the Polish Federation of Technical Associations.The International Conference on Fluid Mechanics and the 11th Carboniferous Stratigraphy and Geology Conference were held in July and August,respectively,in China.

■1988: On 11 September,the 22nd plenary meeting of the International Council of Scientific Unions opened in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing.Zhou Guangzhao,President of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS),had a conversation with Ken Zhu,Chairman of the International Council of Scientific Unions.

■1992:In the 1990s,CAST focused on the strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education and the strategy of ‘going out’,actively participating in the activities of international S&T organizations,deepening cooperation with scientists from all over the world,enhancing China’s international influence,and serving the national strategy.In May,the Chinese Contemporary Physicists Fellowship Symposium,organized by CAST and the CAS,was held in Beijing.In June,the International Symposium on Fluid Mechanics and Theoretical Physics was held in Beijing.

■1995:One thousand young scholars from home and abroad who attended the Second Youth Academic Annual Conference of CAST visited the Museum of the War of Chinese People’s Resistance against Japanese Aggression on 28 July.They expressed their wishes to not forget China’s national humiliation,as well as to rejuvenate the country through science and education.After the meeting,a proposal for‘rejuvenating the country through science and education’ was issued to young S&T workers across the country.

■1998: On 17 February,CAST was invited to send a delegation to attend the 150th anniversary of the establishment of the AAAS.

■1999: On 5 July,Chinese Vice Premier Li Lanqing attended the 14th World Congress of the International Federation of Automatic Control and delivered a speech.In August,CAST held an international seminar with wellknown experts and scholars to exchange in-depth views on how to promote the implementation of the strategy of ‘rejuvenating the country through science and education’.In August,the 9th National Youth Invention Competition and Scientific Symposium was held in Hong Kong.

■2000: On 17 February,Li Peng,Chairman of the Standing Committee of the 9th National People’s Congress,met with internationally renowned agricultural experts Norman Borlaug and Zuo Tianjue,who were invited by CAST and accompanied by CAST vice presidents Wang Lianzheng and Zhang Yutai.On 22 March,CAST President Zhou Guangzhao met with Choi Hyung-sub,Chairman of the Korea Federation of Science and Technology.Also in March,CAST and the American Academy of Sciences signed an online science popularization cooperation agreement.In June,Li Zhengdao visited the China Science and Technology Museum to visit the popular science exhibition ‘Major S&T Achievements in the 20th Century and Prospects for S&T Development in the 21st Century’.In August,the China Electrotechnical Society held the 4th International Electric Power and Electronic Drive Exhibition.In September,Yang Zhenning attended the annual meeting of CAST held in Xi’an.In November,the first International Conference on Mechanical Engineering was held in Shanghai.A Chinese Physical Society delegation went to Taipei to attend the 4th General Assembly and the 9th Council Meeting of the Asia–Pacific Federation of Physical Societies.

■2001: In July,the China Committee of the International Science Council organized a seminar on S&T ethics and their impact on society.In August,Xu Shanyan,Vice President and Secretary of the Secretariat of CAST,led a delegation of Chinese science popularizers to visit the US and Canada.In November,the China Science and Technology Journalism Society and the China Centre for International Science and Technology Conference hosted the third Asia–Pacific Media and Technology and Social Development Seminar.In December,Zhang Yutai,Vice President and First Secretary of the Secretariat of CAST,led a delegation of science popularizers to Australia to conduct exchanges on science popularization facilities and venue construction and management.

■2002: In May,CAST Vice President Zhang Yutai attended the signing ceremony of the cooperation agreement between CAST and the German Association of Engineers.In June,a delegation of Chinese scientists headed by CAST President Zhou Guangzhao visited Russia and attended the China–Russia Science and Technology Forum.The delegation took a group photo with Tereshkova,Director of the Russian Science and Culture Exchange Center.In August,the 24th International Congress of Mathematicians was held in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing.In September,the China Science and Technology Periodicals Exhibition Hong Kong Expo was held.In addition,CAST Vice President Wei Yu attended the CCBS Primary School Mathematics and Science Education Seminar held in Brazil,and CAST Vice President Zhao Zhongxian attended an environmental inspection in Switzerland.

■2004: In May,the 15th International Plant Protection Conference was held.In July,CAST held the International Forum on Citizens’ Science Literacy Construction in Beijing.Experts from Britain,the US,France,Japan,South Korea,India and other countries attended.During the forum,Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei and Japanese astronaut Maori Wei exchanged gifts.In August,the China International Hepatobiliary Surgery Forum was held in Chongqing.By promoting non-governmental S&T exchanges and cooperation with other countries,CAST strengthened its ties with overseas Chinese S&T associations and encouraged overseas Chinese experts and scholars to serve their country in various ways.In October,CAST President Zhou Guangzhao and Vice President Bai Chunli attended the 2004 Public Lecture of Outstanding Contemporary Chinese Scientists held in Hong Kong.In November,CAST members,including Zhou Guangzhao,Zhang Yutai (Vice President)and Deng Nan (Secretary of the Party Group),attended the symposium of overseas representatives of the Fifth Youth Academic Annual Conference of CAST.Also,CAST signed bilateral cooperation agreements with the Romanian Federation of Engineers,the Polish Federation of Engineering Societies and the Russian Federation of Engineering Societies.Chinese Vice Premier Hui Liangyu met with Axel Munack,President of the International Agricultural Engineering Society,during the International Agricultural Engineering Conference.The World Engineers Conference,with the theme of‘Engineers Shaping the Future of Sustainable Development’,was held in Shanghai and was acknowledged as a most brilliant conference among the international engineering community.

■2005: In May,Chinese Vice Premier Zeng Peiyan met with Chinese and foreign guests attending the 13th International Nuclear Engineering Conference.In October,the 28th International Science Council plenary meeting held in Suzhou was hailed as the‘most successful plenary meeting in the history of the meeting’ by representatives of participating countries.In November,Deng Nan,Vice President and First Secretary of the Secretariat of CAST,met with George Atkinson,Science and Technology Advisor to the US Secretary of State.In December,the China–Germany Engineering Education and Certification Cooperation Prospect Seminar was held.

■2006: In April,CAST Vice President Zhao Zhongxian attended the 31st anniversary celebration of the Hong Kong Institution of Engineers.In June,the 2nd International Congress of Paleontology was held.In July,the 15th World Congress of Pharmacology and the 5th International Congress of Pathophysiology were held.In August,CAST Vice President Lu Yanchang attended the China International Power Supply Technology and Equipment Exhibition.In November,CAST President Han Qide met with Paul McManamon,Chairman of the International Society of Optical Engineering and Director of the US Air Force Laboratory.

■2007: In June,Feng Changgen was elected as the Chairman of the Asian Science Council at the seventh meeting of the council.In July,the scientific and cultural inspection tour for the 10th anniversary of Hong Kong’s return to the motherland set off in Beijing.In the same month,the Macau Association for the Advancement of Science and Technology visited CAST.Also,China and Russia held youth S&T cultural exchange activities.In August,the 22nd International Refrigeration Conference was held in Beijing.In September,the World Congress of Pharmacy,the Overseas Intellectuals Service Seminar and Joint Conference,and the China–US Scientist Symposium on Social Responsibility were held in Beijing.Deng Nan,Vice President and First Secretary of the Secretariat of CAST,also met with the AAAS delegation.In October,Chinese and foreign scholars attended a seminar on scientific exploration and human well-being.Deng Nan also met with the delegation of the American Museum of Natural History.Qi Rang,Vice President and Secretary of the Secretariat of CAST,visited the Japan Science and Technology Future Museum.

■2008: On 15 December,a conference to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the founding of CAST was held in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing.Chinese President Hu Jintao delivered a speech at the meeting,encouraging the S&T community to study and absorb international S&T achievements,utilize global S&T resources,and contribute wisdom and strength to the construction of the national innovation system.

■ 2009: On 19 February,Feng Changgen,Secretary of the Secretariat of CAST,held talks with Shi Lei,the editor-in-chief of the Asia–Pacific branch of the AmericanSciencemagazine.From 2 to 6 March,Fu Congbin,Vice President of CAST and Chairman of the Pacific Science Association,led a delegation to the 11th Inter-Sessional Conference of the Pacific Science Association and the 2nd French Pacific Research Symposium.On 12 March,CAST Vice President Qi Rang met with the President of Engineers Australia and his delegation.The two sides signed a bilateral cooperation agreement.From 23 to 25 March,Cheng Donghong,Secretary of the Secretariat of CAST,led a delegation to Malaysia to attend the 2009 International Engineering Education Conference and the 50th Anniversary Celebration of the Malaysian Institute of Engineers.On 26 April,the commemorative meeting of the International Year of Astronomy was held.In August,the 22nd International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Academic Conference was held.CAST President Han Qide met with Chen Deliang,Executive Director of the International Science Council.In September,the International Conference on Information &Communication Technologies and Development was held.In October,the International Conference on Engineering Education and the China–ASEAN Engineering Project Cooperation and Development Forum were held.In November,the 13th World Lake Congress was held.Recommended by CAST,Professor Qian Yi from Tsinghua University won the 2009 Outstanding Engineering Education Award of the WFEO,and Bao Qifan,an expert in seaport construction and port informatization,won the 2009 Hassib J Sabbagh Outstanding Engineering Construction Award of the WFEO.

■2011: In September,Zhang Qin,Secretary of the Secretariat of CAST,met with the delegation from the Romanian Research Agency.Xu Yanhao,Secretary of the Secretariat of CAST,met with the Chairman of the Hungarian National Talent Council.CAST and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers held a cooperation exchange meeting.