A Stigmatized Wedding Custom Versus A Positive Representation in Folk Legends:Chinese Naodongfang and Its Gender Troubles

WANG Xuan

Folk legends depict Naodongfang as an auspicious and positive custom， in contrast to the intellectuals’ negative comments found in historical manuscripts concerning Naodongfang. The three types （stories of auspicious and mythical figures who were incarnated as respected emperors and initiated Naodongfang； tales of folk heroes who were brave and courageous enough to fight villains such as bad emperors or demons； and urban legends of everyday people’s experiences）， affirm Naodongfang as an essential component of a Chinese wedding. The beliefs and legends underlie the practice of lively and noisy weddings and led to the pervasiveness of Naodongfang that continues until today. Folk legends and their related beliefs speak to the longevity of Naodongfang and suggest its historical and present importance.

Keywords： Naodongfang， folk legends， folk beliefs， wedding customs， personal experience narratives

Introduction

Today， the invitation， “Groom and Bride， please enter the Dongfang （新人入洞房），” frequently signifies the end of a wedding ceremony and signals guests that they can start enjoying the feast. “Dongfang，” that translates literally to “cave house” （dong” means “cave” and “fang” is “house”）， refers to the bridal chamber or newlyweds’ bedroom. The character “Nao” is a verb meaning to make something lively. Naodongfang （鬧洞房） is comprised of wedding pranks and games with sexual innuendo that generally take place in the newlywed’s bed chamber on the wedding night. On the one hand， Naodongfang has a history of over 2000 years. It was a widely recognized initiation by around 32-92 BCE according to a reference in The History of the Former Han Dynasty： Geographic Records （《漢書？地理志》） （Chen， 1998； Qu， 2002； Shang， 2000； Zhu， 2009）. Huipeng Shang argues that， during the 2000 years， the custom has not fundamentally changed （2000， p. 211）. On the other hand， to maintain the separation between genders and restrict sexual freedom， the Chinese upper classes consistently tried to shape， if not ban and eliminate， Naodongfang. However， 2000 years of attempts to prohibit Naodongfang have failed； the tradition is still alive and popular， proving its longevity and resilience.

Folk legends and beliefs represent a primary source that speaks to the longevity of Naodongfang and suggests its historical importance to at least some families and regions of China. In contrast to the intellectuals’negative comments found in historical manuscripts concerning Naodongfang， folk legends generally reflect more positive attitudes towards the custom. Many are origin stories that focus on the important and well-respected historical figures who supposedly created Naodongfang and who often fought off evil authorities or monsters in the process.

Naodongfang in Legends of the Incarnation of Immortals and Historical Celebrities

Jiantai Zhu （2009） recorded a legend that explains the origin of this unusual term. According to Zhu， the Yellow Emperor， a mythical figure from five thousand years ago， was a ruler of significant accomplishments； he built alliances among tribes and propelled the stone age to the bronze age and the agrarian age. When the Yellow Emperor became leader of the united tribes， he was the first to be addressed as “emperor” in Chinese history. In the legend， the Yellow Emperor invented the “cave house” to discourage promiscuity that was causing disagreements and battles among members of different tribes. He worried that alliances among tribes would be dissembled by grabbing marriages and conflicts. The solution came one day when he was inspecting the tribes. He noticed a clan that lived in three caves； they had constructed high stone walls to keep out wild animals and the only entrance was a small opening. These caves inspired the Yellow Emperor and he suggested，“when people are getting married， we must hold ceremonies to mark their marriage and they can receive wishes from all tribes. The couple should first bow to the sky and the earth， then bow to their parents， and finally， bow to each other. After the ceremony， people will celebrate their marriage with a banquet complete with liquor， dances and songs. After the celebration， the bridal couple should be delivered into a cave which is strictly protected by high walls. Only a small entrance should be left for food delivery from their family members. The couple should stay in the cave for forty days to three months in order to get to know each other and learn how to make a fire and cook. From then on， only if a couple stayed in a cave and held a formal ceremony， would their union be considered a formal marriage. It was not permissible to grab the bride or the groom in a formal marriage. To distinguish themselves from single women， married women needed to coil up their hair. A woman with a hair coil indicates that she is married and other men cannot make improper advances to her. Otherwise， these men are violating tribes’ law” （Zhu， 2009， p. 2）. Later， his suggestion was accepted among all the tribes and the story is that parents rushed to dig caves for their sons and daughters. As the new custom caught on， both the custom of grabbing marriages and promiscuity declined.

In addition to the Yellow Emperor， Yao （堯）， Shun （舜） and Yu （禹）， who were regarded as mythical tribe leaders and consecutively advanced China’s development from the primitive period to the feudal period， were also responsible for the creation of Naodongfang. According to Zhu， Yao and Yu were both concerned with Naodongfang at their own weddings. For example， when Yu led the tribes to fight enemies， his wedding was in danger of being postponed. Because people still wanted him to get married as scheduled， they heavily guarded his bridal chamber. The enemy Wuzhiqi （巫支祁） sent some demons and spirits to disrupt Yu’s wedding but Yu’s attendants secretly fought off the enemies outside of the bridal chamber for three days. Thanks to them， Yu’s wedding went ahead uninterrupted. Later， people began to follow Yu’s example by inviting friends and relatives to Naodongfang on their wedding nights in order to exorcise demons and evil spirits （Zhu， 2009， p. 7）.

Xueli （雪犁） compiled and edited a comprehensive collection of Chinese folklore that includes in seven legends about the origins of Naodongfang. Four of these legends share the same main plot with minor differences （1994， pp. 558-573）. They all include magical protagonists （often the incarnation of a powerful immortal） whose roles in the mortal world were reputational emperors. In the first story， an emperor， who was the incarnation of the Ziwei Star （紫微星， known as “Emperor Star”）， went out of his palace incognito to investigate “Minjian” （民間， a traditional Chinese concept of the folks/commoners’ world in contrast to the aristocratic world）. One day， he found a female ghost sneaking around and following a wedding party. The ancient Chinese believed that bridal couples were very vulnerable， and that evil spirits intended to harm them and disrupt their weddings. Worried about the newlyweds， the emperor followed the wedding party. He knew that the ghost would hide in the bridal chamber； hence， he put a chair in front of door and sat on it to scare away the ghost. He suggested guests stay outside of the bridal chamber chatting and laughing during the whole night. Drawing on an ancient belief that evil spirits cannot function in daylight， he promised that when the sun rose， the ghost would leave. The guests followed his directions and as a result the ghost was forced to leave without harming the bridal couple. After that， people began to practice similar wedding night customs in an attempt to exorcise evil spirits and protect newlyweds （Collector： Jiangshan. From Xueli， 1994， p. 559； Zhu， 2009）.

The second legend in Xueli’s collection specified that the incarnation of the Ziwei Star was Zhao Kuangyin （927-976）， the initiator and first emperor of the Song Dynasty. In this version， Zhao saved a bridal couple before he became emperor. At that time， he was involved in a war. One day， when he and his soldiers wandered around Bagong Mountain （八公山）， he heard drums and horns， which indicated a wedding troop passing by. Zhao knew that this was an extremely unlucky day to hold a wedding and was not surprised to see seven evil spirits following the bridal sedan chair： the spirit of death， the spirit of the crow， the spirit of the double-faced ghost， the spirit of the coffin， the spirit of drowning， the spirit of five injuries and the spirit of blood. He followed the wedding party and when he found out that the family was poor， he felt he needed to save them.

After the banquet， he saw that the seven spirits were still circling the bridal chamber under the moonlight and decided to do something before guests headed home. He suggested， “in my hometown， we have a tradition during weddings. After the banquet， guests make the bridal chamber boisterous and full of joy. How about we do the same today？” People replied， “sounds good， but we don’t know how to do it.” Zhao listed some ways to have fun. For example， he put a table in the room with melon seeds， peanuts and candies on it and asked the bride to deliver these snacks to the guests. He added， “today is a wedding day； ignore all restrictions for three days when a wedding happens. Everyone should come and have fun.” Immediately， the room got riotous. A man asked the bride to pour a drink of liquor and toast him. That fellow asked the groom to feed the bride with red dates. The third guest requested the bridal couple sing a song. Zhao Kuangyin also had the talent to recite auspicious chants. He led like this： “If the bride eats a red date tonight，” the people answered， “Hooray （好）！”Zhao continued， “a champion in the imperial examination （狀元） will be given birth in the following year，” and the crowd yelled， “Hooray！” Hence， the bridal chamber was riotous until the dark of night. The seven spirits waited for a chance to get into the bridal chamber to hurt the couple. However， until the cocks crowed at dawn，they did not find any chance and left unsuccessfully. When Zhao saw the spirits were gone， he allowed the people to go home and left the newly married couple sleeping.

Zhao Kuangyin still wondered why the couple would hold their wedding on such an inauspicious day. They told him that a teacher in their county had picked this date. Zhao headed to the teacher and questioned him， “we have many lucky days for weddings. Why did you pick a date which was so unlucky and dangerous to them？” The teacher smiled and replied， “because I knew an auspicious figure would appear and save them， although that day was an inauspicious date. I divined that the Ziwei Star would come and make everything good. The wedding families have luck； that is why I picked that date for them.” Zhao felt happy because he was recognized as the Ziwei Star by the teacher. He rewarded him with loads of treasures. Later， when people realized that the initiator of Naodongfang was the emperor Zhao Kuangyin， the custom and legend spread widely. People， therefore， started to practise Naodongfang in order to protect newlyweds by maintaining a lively atmosphere during their weddings （Collector： Tongfu. From Xueli， 1994， p. 566）.

These legends link the origins of Naodongfang to an esteemed figure. Another example is found in the last legend in Xueli’s collection where the emperor Zhao Kuangyin is replaced by another outstanding emperor from the Qing dynasty， Qianlong （乾隆）. Such narratives suggest that over history Naodongfang was often viewed positively， or at least neutrally. The positive associations support the argument that Naodongfang was generally regarded as a respected and desirable custom. These legends gave way to the custom of inviting small children （generally boys） to attend Naodongfang because of the belief that they could be possible incarnations of the Ziwei Star or the Wenqu Star （文曲星）. Since it is impossible to know whether these children will become powerful and influential figures when they grow up， it is thought best to beat the odds by recruiting as many young boys as possible. If it turns out that any of them has the ability to exorcise evil spirits， like the emperors in the folk legends， the newly married couple will be blessed and safe （Narrator： Makaigui. Collector： Yueli， Jiwei Xiao. From Xueli， 1994， p. 570）.

Naodongfang in Legends of Folk Heoros Fight off Evil Authorities or Monsters

In contrast to the Yellow Emperor who created the “cave house” to discourage grabbing marriages and promiscuity in Chinese pre-history， the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty （秦始皇， 259BCE-210BCE） was a cruel dictator who is associated with the cave house in a negative way. Although the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty brought together six countries， and established the first grand unified regime in China which marked the initiation of Feudalism in Chinese history， he had the reputation of being a tyrant. He forcibly recruited labourers to build the Great Wall and many workers died during the construction. He was also famous for burning manuscripts and killing intellectuals. In folk legends he surfaces as a villain in relation to the Dongfang， or cave house.

When constructing the Epang Palace （阿房宮）， the emperor asked ministers to bring beautiful women to him. A smart and pretty woman named “The Third Lady” （三姑娘） was forcedly delivered to the Epang Palace to serve the emperor but she refused and escaped to Hua Mountain （華山）. Meanwhile， because the emperor was killing intellectuals and burning manuscripts， numerous intellectuals ran for their lives. A young intellectual named Shenbo also ran to Hua Mountain. One day， the Third Lady encountered Shenbo on the mountain. Even though their clothes were in rags and their faces were pale， it was love at first sight. They held a wedding ceremony by picking and burning branches as incense and making their vows in front of the sky and the earth. They were entirely devoted to each other and even though they could not live in a fancy house with tiles， they were happy to live together in a cave under a giant rock （Zhu， 2009， p. 4）. In this legend， the villainous First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty contrasts with the lovers who are happy in their cave house.

Legends belonging to ethnic minority groups also describe the origins of Naodongfang. For example， members of the She ethnic group （畬族） antiphonally exchanged folk songs all night long during weddings； the longer and livelier the singing event， supposedly the happier and luckier the bridal couple will be （Shang， 2000， p. 132； Zhu， 2009， p. 9）. They believed that in ancient She Mountain， a green-faced， long-toothed demon would invade villages in search of children to eat and properties to rob. The demon， who lusted after virgins， used magic to grab brides during their weddings. After having sex with innocent brides， the demon immediately abandoned them in the forest and left them to die among wolves and other beasts. Year after year， no one knew how many brides had died because of this demon. A clever girl named Lanjinfeng （蘭金鳳， Orchid Golden Phoenix） was captured by the demon during her wedding. She figured out that he was very afraid of lively occasions. Thus， she made a fabricated appointment with the demon and tried her best to persuade him to send her back home. Once she got back， Lanjinfeng lit the room and called on all the villagers to join her. They made noise by drinking and laughing all night and the sounds of singing and goblets clinking made the house so lively， the demon fled. When people discovered that their partying could destroy the demon’s magic， they carried on the tradition of singing all night long in order to protect brides from being grabbed by the demon（Shang， 2000， p. 132； Zhu， 2009， p. 9）.

Naodongfang in Contemporary Urban Legends and Personal Experience Narratives

Above legends are ancient examples but Naodongfang continues to be the subject of contemporary oral narratives. Rather than stories of mythic creatures and Chinese nobility， today personal experience narratives and urban legends with sensational plots are the most common orally transmitted narratives. For example， Zhu recorded a legend based on Naodongfang. In the western area of Fujian Province， there was a belief that candles and lights were not allowed in the bridal chamber； the room had to be kept dark. When one newly married couple stepped into the dark room following their wedding， the bride said to the groom， “while we have so many guests and relatives who are still standing outside， we should not seek our own pleasure （have sex）. You should go out to them.” The groom agreed and left. A villain with evil intentions was in the crowd impersonating a guest. He snuck into the bridal chamber after the groom left. Because the room was very dark， the bride thought he was the groom and slept with him. Later， when the groom came back， he also approached to make love with the bride. The bride felt strange， “you just came in and slept with me. Why did you leave right afterwards？” The groom replied， “I just came from the living room and stepped into the bedroom.” The bride realized that someone else had slept with her， but she kept silent. The next day， she felt so upset and ashamed that she hanged herself. After she died， her family charged the groom. When the police checked the scene， they found a short poem on her skirt explaining the circumstances. It told how a perpetrator had snuck into the bridal chamber and slept with the bride. When she realized what had happened， the bride felt so ashamed that she killed herself to avoid the spread of rumours. The police realized that the groom was innocent； they investigated the criminal and he was convicted and sentenced in the end. To avoid similar crimes in the future， they issued a new regulation： all wedding families must organize Naodongfang and the bridal chamber must be lit as brightly as if it were daylight. People must celebrate in a lively way so that there would be no opportunity for a villain to harm a newly married couple. According to legend， the incident gave birth to the custom of Naodongfang in southwestern Fujian （Zhu， 2009， p. 44）.

Folk legends reflect active and inactive approaches to affect future. As Jixia （季遐） notes， the active approach expresses the worldview that human beings can influence their fortune by their actions. For example， if people make a wedding livelier， then the wedding families will be more prosperous （越鬧越發）. Prosperity implies 发， which means growth and fortune， and is a common theme in Chinese beliefs in terms of both reproduction and wealth. In contrast， the inactive approach reflects a worldview that positions people as passive recipients； they must bear the outcomes of evil spells and malicious spirits. Jixia identifies the inactive approach in a Naodongfang narrative he learned from his mother. “…So and so the aunt got married. She had offended and irritated some of her relatives； hence no one came to her Naodongfang. Later， a person came to Kuifang （窺房 eavesdropping in the bridal chamber）. It seemed like the newly married couple were sleeping deeply without a sound. Suddenly， the person saw the candles’ flames were flickering and almost going out.1 After a gust of wind， he saw a woman with dishevelled hair （generally the image of a female ghost in Chinese culture） kneeling in the front of the bed and kowtowing to the couple.2 Although the bridal couple initially seemed good， both died very soon after” （1927， p. 425）.

Conclusion

The legends discussed above depict Naodongfang as an auspicious and positive custom. The three types（stories of auspicious and mythical figures who were incarnated as respected emperors and initiated Naodongfang； tales of folk heroes who were brave and courageous enough to fight villains such as bad emperors or demons； and urban legends of everyday people’s experiences）， affirm Naodongfang as an essential component of a Chinese wedding. The narratives express and reinforce three folk beliefs： （1） lively situations and groups of humans have magical powers to exorcise ghosts and evil spirits； （2） newly married couples should be prioritized and protected； and （3） newly married couples， especially brides， who are easily possessed by evil spirits， need to be protected by customs.3 The narratives support the importance of Naodongfang in controlling unlucky elements during weddings and ensuring that the newlyweds remains safe and prosperous. The beliefs and legends underlie the practice of lively and noisy weddings and led to the pervasiveness of Naodongfang that continues until today； they also reinforce Renao as an important aspect of Chinese culture.

References

Chen， X. C. （陳星燦）. （1998）. Naodongfang and Jus Primae Noctis [鬧房與初夜權]. Dongnan Wenhua， 2， 59-65.

Jixia （季遐）. （1927）. Correspondences on Naodongfang. Yusi Journal [語絲]， 120， 423-430.

Qu， Y. B. （曲彥斌）. （2002）. A brief history of Chinese wedding rituals [中國婚禮儀式史略]. Minsu Yanjiu， 2， 75-88.

Shang， H. P. （尚會鵬）. （1997）. The social functions and changes of Naofang customs： Using the example of the west village in Mid-China [中原地區“鬧房”習俗的社會功能及其變化：以“西村”為例]. Minsu Yanjiu， 3， 22-34.

Shang， H. P. （尚會鵬）. （2000）. Naodongfang [鬧洞房]. Beijing： Zhongyang Minzu Daxue Chubanshe.

Xueli. （雪犁）. （1994）. A comprehensive collection of Chinese folklore and genesis [中華民俗源流集成]. Lanzhou： Gansu Renmin Chubanshe.

Zhu， J. T. （朱建太）. （2009）. Practical Naodongfang in rural villages [農村實用鬧洞房]. Taiyuan： Shanxi Jingji Chubanshe.

1 According to the Chinese belief， candles in the bridal chamber are supposed to be lit all day and night for three consecutive days to ensure good fortune and longevity of the wedding couple.

2 According to Chinese etiquette， only deceased， ancestors and seniors are greeted by kowtow. The implication is that the bridal couple would die soon and hence the female ghost was kowtowing to them in advance.

3 For example， the bride is required to jump over a small bonfire to exorcise evils， or she has to be delivered by someone on their backs or walk on her feet with a carpet as the medium from directly touching the soil.