Leaving No One Behind:Reflections on Global Poverty Eradication

Xu Bu

Poverty knows no national boundaries. Recognizing the urgency

of poverty eradication， the United Nations—the world’s most

important body of global governance—adopted in 2015 an

ambitious plan of action， Transforming Our World： The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Among the priorities listed in the 2030 Agenda is “ending poverty in all its forms everywhere， including by eradicating extreme poverty by 2030.”

In September 2021， Secretary-General of the United Nations， António Guterres， is scheduled to submit a report to the UN General Assembly， Our Common Agenda， in which he will put forward a comprehensive package of proposals on global development. His report cannot be more timely， as the global pandemic caused by COVID-19 poses grave challenges for the implementation of the 2030 Agenda. An estimated 70-100 million people will fall into extreme poverty due to the global pandemic， a massive reversal that will nearly wipe out progress in poverty eradication in the poorest countries over the past three years. Poverty eradication remains a daunting challenge， and the United Nations has led and should continue to lead the international community in addressing it.

Major Challenges for Global Development

Poverty is not unique to developing countries； it is a global challenge and an integral part of global development. Against the backdrop of a stagnant world economy， widening gap between the rich and the poor， and increasing North-South disparity， global development deficit has grown unabated， particularly in the following five areas.

Lack of inclusiveness

In the wake of the 2008 global financial crisis， economic growth in most developed countries has slowed （even stagnated）， which in turn has had a significant negative impact on many developing countries. In fact， for decades developing countries hardly benefited from growth in developed countries. The rise of rampant populism and protectionism in major developed countries in recent years has exacerbated the economic woes of developing countries. Take smartphone as an example. Smartphone ownership in most developing countries is far below the global average of 59 percent， with Tanzania having merely 13 percent.

Unbalanced development

Imbalance in development is the most consequential imbalance today. With deepening globalization， economic disparity among countries has substantially widened， making unbalanced development even more pronounced. According to “The Changing Wealth of Nations 2018，” a report from the World Bank， per capita wealth ratio between high- and low-income countries has spiked from 47：1 in 1995 to 51：1 in 2014. In 2017 the world’s richest one percent of population possessed 82 percent of global wealth. On the other hand， small economies in the South have experienced zero or even negative economic growth. Between 1995 and 2014 the world’s total wealth rose from US$690 trillion to US$1143 trillion， an increase of nearly 66 percent， while that of sub-Saharan Africa grew by a pitiful one percent. In 2014 high-income countries accounted for 72 percent of the world’s total wealth， compared with seven percent for lowincome countries， which are home to the vast majority of the world’s population.

Reduced willingness to cooperate

Amidst the ongoing global economic downturn， countries are less willing to seek cooperation in development， particularly in the economic and ecological spheres. Developed countries are increasingly inward-looking. By launching trade wars， the Trump administration dealt a heavy blow to global economic cooperation. Some developed countries openly ignored the urgency of environmental protection and actively undermined international agreements reached through difficult negotiations. Again， the Trump administration， obsessed with “America First，” arbitrarily withdrew from a number of international treaties and agreements， which seriously eroded the institutional foundation of global development. Facing strong headwind， globalization is nevertheless an irreversible trend. Optimized allocation of national resources， human resources， and commodities is a prerequisite for sustained global economic growth. Any action that hinders the healthy and effective operation of global industrial and supply chains will not only damage global growth， but also dampen global cooperation.

Adverse effects of “intellectual hegemony”

Innovation is the primary driving force for growth， and the global flow of innovative knowledge is vital for global development. Against the backdrop of global economic downturn， global innovation is also facing myriad challenges， especially the rise of intellectual protectionism in developed countries. The 2019 Global Innovation Index shows that global investment in innovation registered a significant decrease from 2016 to 2019. Developed countries have been anything but generous in sharing scientific and technological knowledge with developing countries. Since most developing countries are woefully lacking in innovative capacity， the continuous emergence of new technologies and industries has put them in an increasingly unfavorable position.

Problematic global development assistance

Though much attention has been paid to poverty in developing countries， the effectiveness and sustainability of global development assistance have been called into question. Developed countries and international organizations dominated by them have been the main providers of global development assistance. Yet despite major assistance projects， many recipient countries have failed to achieve sustainable development， and some have even become poorer with more assistance. Africa received the largest amount of global official development assistance in 1970-1998， but its poverty rate shot up from 11 percent to 66 percent. Starting in the 1980s， international assistance agencies began to put more emphasis on the sustainability of assistance. However， among the numerous assistance projects in developing countries， only a few achieved sustainability， with the vast majority being abandoned once assistance is terminated.

Major Causes of Poverty in Developing Countries

Poverty is a multi-dimensional problem that involves not only income， but also education， health， and other issues. Thus “ending poverty” is more than giving money to poor people. It includes seven sub-goals， including eradicating extreme poverty， reducing the proportion of people living in poverty， implementing nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all， and ensuring all men and women have equal rights to economic resources. All countries， especially the poor ones， are actively looking for answers to “ending poverty.” To eradicate poverty， though， we must first identify its roots.

Negative effects of globalization

Globalization is a double-edged sword. It not only brings about massive benefits， but also leads to many undesirable outcomes like development gap， income inequality， and environmental degradation. Especially in times of economic downturn， globalization can aggravate global development deficit. On the one hand， the relative benefits of globalization have resulted in excessive disparity in the initial distribution of global development gains. On the other hand， the interplay of domestic and transnational forces often makes it nearly impossible to rebalance global development.

Globalization is conducive to the optimal allocation of resources. However， even under ideal circumstances where all countries would benefit from globalization， there would still be remarkable differences in relative gains between and within countries. Individuals endowed with either knowledge or capital tend to benefit the most from globalization， while those who have neither benefit the least. Driven by capital， globalization has resulted in higher growth rather than more fair growth， leading to serious imbalance between and within countries.

Governance challenge for poor countries

State-level effective governance plays a vital role in global development. However， globalization has proved to be detrimental to effective governance within countries. As the main body responsible for maintaining social justice， the state should use redistributive policies to minimize unbalanced development. Yet the negative effects of globalization have intensified the conflicts between groups with differential benefits from globalization， leading to increased difficulty in building domestic consensus. And the absence of such consensus greatly increases the risk of domestic instability. Meanwhile， transnational forces frequently intervene in domestic policymaking and implementation， rendering redistributive policies largely ineffective.

Poverty can hardly be dealt with by poor countries themselves. But the leadership role of international organizations has been on the decline. As a critical force for maintaining global peace and development， international organizations actively engage in coordinating and balancing the interests of different countries. The negative effects of globalization have sharply undermined international organizations’ ability to perform their proper functions. With declining global cooperation， nationalism has witnessed a powerful resurgence， which is decidedly detrimental to global development. With the world increasingly becoming a community with a shared future， crises and challenges in domestic governance often have a spill-over effect on global development.

Inherent defects of existing development mechanisms

The failure of economic governance has led major developed countries into a prolonged period of recession. This in turn has resulted in a massive reduction in their funding for international development assistance， which in the first place rarely fulfils the quota set by the United Nations. More importantly， developed countries are confronted with ineffective redistributive mechanisms， slowed-down institutional innovation， and a widening gap between the rich and the poor， which combine to produce governance crisis， sharpen political differences， and fuel populism.

The international community has increasingly become a community with a shared future. No global risk can be addressed by any country alone. International cooperation is the most powerful solution. However， existing global development mechanisms have inherent flaws， which make it difficult to effectively forge global consensus. Since existing global development mechanisms are mostly dominated by developed countries， the latter has nearly absolute monopoly over discourse， rules-making， and agenda-setting， while developing countries can hardly have their voices heard. Take the International Monetary Fund as an example. Sub-Saharan African countries account for nearly a quarter of IMF members， but have merely 5.6 percent of the voting rights.

Inapplicability of Western development models

After the end of the Cold War， Western countries believed their development models to be universally applicable， and even equated modernization with Westernization. Through their global influence， they also tried to impose their models on the rest of the world. Faced with the global dominance of developed countries and driven by their eagerness to develop， some developing countries blindly copied Western models of development. As an example of these models， the Washington Consensus prioritizes liberalization， privatization， and marketization. Whether it is simplifying the complexities of development， forcing others to adopt a certain model，or intervening in other countries’ internal political development （directly or indirectly）， these moves often lead to serious political crises.

The development paths of the United States and Western European countries are substantially different from the current challenges faced by developing countries. Transplanting Western development models to developing countries can be extremely counterproductive. Such transplantation has rarely yielded expected results. For many developing countries， full liberalization， privatization and marketization have led to alarming income gap， increased unemployment， rampant corruption， dangerous inflation， and economic recession. Some countries even underwent prolonged instability， triggering global refugee problems， humanitarian crisis， and terrorism. Economic development has its own laws， but this does not mean that government interference is dispensable. In fact， in the history of the United States and European countries， there were many examples of active government intervention. It takes time for developing countries to find a development path that best fits their national conditions. During this process， other countries may offer a helping hand， but they should never impose their will.

China’s Poverty Eradication Experience

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by the UN is aimed at balancing the three dimensions of sustainable development， the economic， social and environmental， therefore shifting the world onto a sustainable and resilient path. Over the past several decades， China has not only balanced the three dimensions of development， but also achieved great accomplishments in the course of poverty eradication. Since its reform and opening-up some forty years ago， China has accounted for more than 70 percent of reductions in global poverty， and the massive reduction of poverty in China has become one of the great success stories in human history. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China， the poverty incidence in rural China has dropped from 97.5 percent （using purchasing power parity of the year） in 1978 to 0.6 percent in 2019， while the number of rural Chinese living in poverty has dropped from 770 million to 5.51 million over the same period. The Chinese government announced in 2020 that after years of relentless effort， all poor rural populations have been lifted out of poverty under current standards， all poverty-stricken counties have been removed from the poverty list， and regional poverty has been eliminated entirely. The lessons from China’s poverty eradication experience can be summarized as follows：

China’s poverty eradication is rooted in unwavering political commitments. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China， the Chinese government has committed itself to developing economy and eliminating poverty. Starting from 1984， the Chinese government has promulgated a long list of policy guidelines to regulate the policy and practice of poverty elimination in different historical periods. Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China， the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at the core has regarded poverty alleviation as the bottom-line task and landmark indicator for building a well-off society in an all-round way. Meanwhile， the poverty eradication and development program has also been included into the nation’s “Five-sphere Integrated Plan” and “Four-pronged Comprehensive Strategy.” President Xi Jinping has also made China’s nationwide war against poverty the top priority on his agenda， by convening regular meetings and giving detailed instructions. In short， the Chinese government has fully and completely committed itself to the fight against poverty.

China’s poverty eradication is guided by the concepts of development. Upholding development as the top priority， China focuses its efforts on the promotion of high-quality development， and follows the new development model of “innovation， coordination， green， openness and sharing.” Guided by these development concepts， the Chinese government combines poverty eradication with social and economic development， while advancing poverty eradication through ecological and educational means. Meanwhile， the Chinese government provides a social safety net for the impoverished population， and finds a proper place for them in overall social development， so they can build the capacity to help themselves in the long run. This is why China has been able to achieve an integrated development with social， economic and ecological wins.

China’s poverty eradication is based on the strategy of targeted poverty alleviation. The Chinese government has initiated a series of innovative measures to fight poverty， such as the “Five-Pronged Poverty Alleviation Measures，” the “Six Precisions” in poverty eradication， and the“Ten Poverty Reduction Projects.” Such strategies have responded precisely to the core concerns of poverty eradication， by specifying the recipients and providers of poverty relief as well as the approaches used.

China’s poverty eradication is implemented by different levels of government. As special poverty alleviation agencies were established at all administrative levels， the general campaign operates on the basis of a working mechanism whereby the central government makes overall plans， provincial-level governments take overall responsibility， and city and county governments ensure implementation. Meanwhile， roles and responsibilities in poverty eradication have been carefully assigned to the relevant parties， while strict assessment systems have been set up to ensure the effectiveness of poverty eradication. Governments at all levels are charged with overseeing poverty eradication within their own jurisdictions， while poverty alleviation has been incorporated into the regional economic and social development planning. Furthermore， a series of poverty eradication mechanisms were established across the nation to mobilize all related parties to create a synergy for the whole-of-society poverty eradication campaign.

China’s poverty eradication is supported by the government’s longterm and continuous financial investment. From 2017 to 2020， the annual funds for poverty eradication allocated by the central government were 86.1 billion yuan， 106.1 billion yuan， 126.1 billion yuan and 146.1 billion yuan respectively， not counting funds raised by local governments and other social organizations. Despite progress made in China’s industrialization and urbanization， the Chinese government has never ceased to support the development of agriculture and rural areas. In fact， China’s national financial fund for agriculture keeps rising year by year， which accounts for about 10 percent of total fiscal expenditures. In recent years， the Chinese government has also increased investment in infrastructure and public services in rural areas. The purpose is to ensure that the rural areas are equipped with basic development conditions， such as access to water， electricity， roads， postal services and networks， therefore providing important resources for poverty eradication.

Policy Recommendations

Considering the complexities and difficulties involved in the process of poverty elimination， scientific strategies designed to eradicate poverty must be firmly rooted in the realities of individual countries. To end poverty in all its forms everywhere， as stated in the all countries to uphold the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 1， all nations must join the global effort to fight poverty. The 2020 global pandemic has brought unprecedented challenges to the world economy and people’s livelihoods. According to the World Bank， global extreme poverty is expected to rise in 2020 for the first time in over 20 years， and the pandemic is estimated to push 150 million people into extreme poverty. As the UN launches the SDG Decade of Action at this critical moment， it is our shared responsibility to sustain global development and leave no one behind. With inspirations from China’s own experience in poverty eradication， I offer suggestions as follows.

Unite the world in fighting the pandemic

It is necessary for all countries to uphold scientific principles in curbing COVID-19， adopt measures for normalized epidemic prevention and control， and join global anti-pandemic efforts. The international community should prioritize the needs of the developing countries （the weak ones in particular）， and strengthen support for countries in Africa and other developing regions. It is also important for all governments to increase policy coordination and cooperation in terms of addressing the shared challenges in social， economic and financial areas. All countries should be united in opposing all forms of coronavirus-related stigmatization， and combating the pandemic-fueled hate speech and action. The international community must be called upon to say no to vaccine nationalism， while ensure the accessibility and affordability of the vaccines in developing countries.

Further international development cooperation

The international community should insist on the principle of“common but differentiated responsibilities，” while continuing to maintain the role of South-North cooperation as the main channel for international development， and South-South cooperation as its complement. The developed countries need to ensure the full and timely delivery of their Official Development Assistance （ODA） commitments， further increase assistance to the developing countries， especially the least developed countries （LDCs）， landlocked developing countries （LLDCs） and small island developing states （SIDS）， and support them in exploring development paths in line with their own national conditions. The developing countries should further pursue South-South cooperation among themselves， and strive to achieve unity and self-reliance. International organizations， led by the UN， should give full play to their advantages， strengthen information sharing and coordination with all parties， and actively promote international development cooperation through multilateral channels. The private sector， civil society groups and charitable organizations should also be encouraged to play a greater role.

Expand educational opportunities

The role of education in poverty eradication is fundamental， as it ends the vicious cycle of intergenerational transmission of poverty. Therefore， all countries are advised to increase investment in education， especially in terms of supporting vocational and basic education. We should give greater attention and assistance to education in poor regions， so that no child is left behind in receiving quality education. Emphasis should also be placed on combining poverty eradication with educational development， as well as the need to adopt a development-oriented poverty reduction approach that focuses on development as the fundamental way to get out of poverty， so as to build up poor people’s capacity to help themselves.

Guarantee global food security

Trade restrictions imposed during the pandemic have hindered the free flow of food and disrupted the global food industry chain and supply chain. Food prices are rising because of the instability in global food supply and panic buying. International travel restrictions have caused labor shortage in certain regions and broken the seasonal production cycle. All these factors combined might exacerbate food security problems and worsen humanitarian crisis in the affected countries and regions. Therefore， it is critical to ensure the stability of the global food industry chain and supply chain， while providing humanitarian assistance to the developing countries， especially those in Africa， whose food supply has been negatively affected by the pandemic. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization （FAO）， the World Food Program （WFP） and other relevant international organizations must shoulder greater responsibility in this regard.

Promote sustainable development

The relationship between humans and nature is one of coexistence and interdependence. Therefore， humans have to live with the damages they do to nature. We take natural resources like air and water for granted when we have them， but we won’t be able to survive without them. Ancient Chinese wisdom about the harmonious relationship between humans and nature can provide inspiration for the world in its pursuit of sustainable development. The international community should move towards a green， low-carbon， recyclable and sustainable way of production and life， and advance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in a balanced manner. Continuous efforts should be made to explore a model of sound development that ensures growth， better lives and a good environment. The world must work together to fulfill the promises of the Paris Agreement， a true milestone in the history of global climate governance. All countries need to carry on the efforts to combat climate change and honor their respective obligations， such as achieving the goal of carbon neutrality.

Advance gender equality

Twenty-five years have passed since the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action was adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women. Around the world， tremendous strides have indeed been made in terms of the rise of gender equality awareness and women’s social status. Nevertheless， many women still live under the shadow of war， poverty，discrimination and violence. Gender inequality is a grave injustice and a fundamental human rights challenge for all of us. The UN needs to promote the elimination of prejudices， discrimination and violence against women， while encouraging the building of societies that are harmonious and inclusive. The improvement and protection of women’s livelihoods must be realized in the course of development， so that women’s development goes hand in hand with social and economic development. Moreover， special attention must be paid to the negative impact of the pandemic on women， and priority must be given to the protection of women’s and girls’ health and economic rights， such as creating more job opportunities for women and cracking down on violations of women’s rights.

Safeguard peace and security

The world is caught in severe turbulence and profound changes， while global peace and security faces unprecedented challenges. It is truly fortunate that Secretary-General António Guterres has called for immediate global ceasefire in all corners of the world at this critical juncture， and the international community should continue to put his proposal into action. The UN should urge all relevant parties to stop fighting and resolve disagreements through peaceful means. The UN Security Council should play its part to help settle international disputes through its collective security mechanism. The UN should carry on its efforts to implement the Secretary-General’s Action for Peacekeeping Initiative， improve the capacity of peacekeeping operations to fulfill their mandate， and help post-conflict countries build lasting peace.

Protect and promote human rights

Under the influence of the coronavirus pandemic and unilateral sanctions， some developing countries and least developed countries now face challenges in protecting and promoting human rights. In order to meet these challenges， we must strengthen the prevention and treatment of COVID-19， and prioritize the protection of the right to life. As the year 2021 marks the 35th anniversary of the UN’s Declaration on the Right to Development， the UN should encourage the international community to recognize development rights as the mainstream value. Furthermore， the UN should commit itself to solving inequality problems， protecting the rights of minority groups， and opposing racism， racial discrimination and hate speech with more efforts. The UN should also take the lead to say no to the politicization of human rights issues and double standards， and reduce confrontation on human rights so as to create a favorable environment for international human rights cooperation.

Improve global governance

We must confront the complex global risks and challenges with caution and strategic thinking. As the most universal， representative and authoritative international organization， the UN is most qualified and best positioned to play the leadership role in the world. The UN needs to respond to new situations and new tasks， and give more voice and influence to the developing countries. It should work to improve efficiency and enhance its ability to respond to emergency， and realize the modernization of its governance system and capability. We should promote and strengthen the international system with the UN at its core. Meanwhile， in light of the shortcomings in global governance revealed by the pandemic， it is imperative to improve the global governance structure， while enhancing our ability to respond to various global challenges in public health， climate change and data security. Furthermore， we must continue to champion the purposes and principles of the UN Charter， and encourage UN agencies such as the General Assembly， the Security Council， and the Economic and Social Council to combine their strengths in terms of conducting preventive diplomacy， development assistance and peacebuilding， while respecting the concerns of the developing countries， in order to foster an atmosphere of peaceful development.