Perception of Myth in Print and Online Media

Nino Kopaleishvili

Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Georgia

Abstract While analyzing media texts, linguists usually distinguish between denotation and connotation of linguistic signs. Barthes (Rayner, Wall & Kruger, 2001) has added another term “myth”. This term is used by a number of scholars and was first mentioned in Barthes’ essay “myth today” (Bignell, 1997; Bignell, 2002; Turner, 2005). Myth is a system of signifiers, a semiological system, where social, historical and cultural meanings are connected with a sign (Turner, 2005; Rayner, Wall & Kruger, 2001; Barthes in Bignell, 1997; Gaines, 2001). In this paper, we will discuss a meaning of myth in media, its perception through media in print and online journalism. The paper provides an analysis of the case of myth creation and the characteristics of narration in print and online news. One of the main features of online newspapers is non-linear model of narration and nonlinear perception of information by readers.

Keywords: media text, sign, semiotics, myth, online journalism

1. Introduction

The development of technology has changed the methods of information provision worldwide. If in the 19th century the newspaper was the only means of information provision, later radio and television were invented. Nowadays, most print newspapers maintain their websites and we see an attempt to combine the three mediums of communication through online journalism. This research studies the English language media and explores the narration style of newspapers such as TheNewYorkTimes,TheWashingtonPost,TheIndependent,TheGuardian and The Telegraph. Newspapers are believed to be in competition with online media (Hargreaves, 2005). This could be described as a universal event in the entire world. Those who favor print media consider that online journalism should not develop at the expense of print media.

I expect the newspaper to remain a universal news source that offers a daily basic package of current information of trusted reputation and reliability in the foreseeable future. But at the same time, journalists and publishers cannot afford not to take seriously the new news consumption of the youngest generation. This new information consumption combines many media and other sources, of a journalistic and non-journalistic kind. (Bardoel, 2002, p. 506)

Internet journalism attracts special attention today as the means of the provision of information is becoming more diverse. This study relies on the notion that the online narrative construction is non-linear (Ward, 2002). The paper draws upon a basic definition of narrative according to which it is a means to provide a sequence of information in a logical and structured manner (Rayner, 2001).

In this paper, I will discuss and seek answers to several questions. First, what is myth? Second, how media texts shall convey or create myths. The sub questions of the study are: How narration differs in print and online journalism and if representation of myths in media texts requires different narrative construction in print and online journalism. In this paper, I will draw upon linguistic and semiotic analysis of the concepts of media text and myth.

2. Myth in Media

In media text analysis we draw upon Saussure’s definition of a sign as a dichotomy of signified (concept), signifier (sound image) and the fact that a sign shall be altered due to a change in the relationship between the signifier and the signified (Saussure, 1959). Saussure (1959) states that a linguistic sign is arbitrary. Signs and auditory signifiers are linear (Saussure, 1959). According to Rayner et al. (2001) “a particular media have their own sets of codes and sign systems” (p. 54). Linguists define denotative and connotative meanings of signs (Rayner, Wall & Kruger, 2001). Denotation is “what an image actually shows and is immediately apparent, rather than the assumptions an individual reader may make about it” (Rayner et al., 2001, p. 54). In textual analysis, it is significant to take into account the concept of connotation “the meaning of a sign which is arrived at through the cultural experiences a reader brings to it” (ibid.). Media text consists of codes and signs (Kopaleishvili, 2019, p. 67). Besides the idea that we should analyse media texts as a system of signs and codes, which convey denotative and connotative meanings, it is important to consider the concept of myth. Myth is a system of communication, it is a message, signified. In addition to denotative meaning, myths convey connotative (implied/suggestive) meaning. The study of myth is the realm of semiology, however, it is studied in the field of semiotics as well (Barthes, 1957). Rayner et al. (2001) argue that “semiotics with its emphasis on the text and its codes and signs can be seen as a move away from earlier analyses that saw the media as a ‘process’ model of communication” (p. 56). Semiotics puts more emphasis on the message rather than the channel of message and how the media text is communicated and interpreted by its audience/readers (Rayner et al., 2001). The example of myth shall be advertisements that consist of signs, which convey certain meanings. Turner (2005) elaborates on the example of movie stars who have established a particular meaning or myth in the society based on the roles they played and the image created over the years. Myth shall be “a culturally enriched sign” which “becomes the signifier for the next sign in a chain of signification of ascending complexity and cultural specificity” (Turner, 2005, p. 15). Among other examples, Turner (2005) brings upon an example of an actor Arnold Schwarzenegger who has accrued meanings as a result of his role as Terminator that became “part of what he signified in subsequent performances” (p. 15). Bignell (1997) brings an example of a photograph of Buckingham Palace, which in his words in addition to denotative meaning, connotes “signifieds of royalty, tradition, wealth and power” (p. 16).

When it comes to advertising, news, TV or film texts, linguistic, visual and other types of signs, which are used in media texts convey a number of connotations attached to the sign.

Barthes calls this social phenomenon, the bringing-together of signs and their connotations to shape a particular message, the making of ‘myth’. Myth here does not refer to mythology in the usual sense of traditional stories, but to ways of thinking about people, products, places, or ideas which are structured to send particular messages to the reader or viewer of the text. (Bignell, 1997, p. 16)

The way media attaches “connotations to people and things and endow them with mythic meanings” (ibid., p. 17) linguistically shall be expressed by metaphors and metonymy. Describing an example of an advertising slogan of new Rolls-Royce which reads “The new Rolls-Royce eats up the tarmac”, Bignell (1997) argues that in this slogan the linguistic sign “eats up” is used metaphorically to describe a fast car, while usage of the sign “tarmac” instead of “road” is a metonymy (p. 17). Myths similar to denotative and connotative meanings of signs are expected to change after a certain period of time and could accrue the initial meaning only in a related context (Bignell, 1997, p. 17).

Some scholars argue that “myth is a key concept to explore the construction of meaning in media narratives” and when we observe media creating meaning “we should take in consideration the epistemological scope of myth” (Morales, 2013 p. 33). Morales (2013) points out myths are “ethnic ideas” or “popular ideas” that refer to “most important aspects of human life” (p. 34). Thus, myth is connected to inner human world and we observe its presence in media texts when a story is related to human values (Kopaleishvili & Goksadze, 2005, p. 160). This becomes particularly clear when a sign, person, object, or a story acquires meaning that creates myth.

Another aspect that is important to consider when analyzing how media creates and communicates myth is the narration style. Narration shall be different in the case of print and online journalism. By definition, narrative is “the way in which a story is told in both fictional and non-fictional media texts” (Rayner et al., 2001, p. 60). Narrative is important for children as well as grown-ups to perceive events in a logical manner and structure, and it often affects the formation of values (Rayner et al., 2001). Media scholars (Berner, 1998; Bender et al., 2001; Brooks et al., 1996; Good & Graddol, 1996; Itule & Anderson, 1994; Hartley, 1990; Hough, 1988; Fedler, 1993; Mencher, 1993; Nel, 1999) define several writing styles that are dominant in English language print media, however, in this particular paper, we will rely on a general definition of a narrative construction and its characteristics in the case of print and online journalism. Rayner et al. (2001) describe that “. . . narrative is a means by which media producers shape and control the flow of information to an audience. At a basic level, narrative can be seen as the sequencing of information about events into a logical and cohesive structure in time and space” (p. 62). In this research we draw upon a formula defined by the Bulgarian theorist Tzvetan Todorov, which provides a rather simple definition of the concept. According to Todorov, narrative is based on the following sequences: “Equilibrium—Disequilibrium—New Equilibrium” (ibid.).

The study takes into consideration common writing styles in news and features: inverted pyramid style, list technique, hourglass style and Wall Street Journal formula (Fedler, 1993; Mencher, 1993; Rich, 1994; Nel, 1999).

Ward (2002) emphasizes that narration in newspapers and broadcast news is based on a linear model, while online story construction is of non-linear nature. This is due to the fact that information shall be consumed through different channels such as text summary, audio file, graphic, video, database, hyperlink to another site for further information, etc. (p. 121).

The third aspect which is important in analyzing media texts and creating myths is the media channel/medium. It is important to consider whether we deal with a newspaper, magazine, TV, radio, billboard, advertisement, or film.

In this paper, I basically discuss print and online newspapers and what is the added value of online journalism in demonstrating or establishing myth. Since myth conveys not only linguistic but historic, cultural and social meanings, media researchers shall identify how it is communicated and perceived in media texts. Later in this article, I will elaborate on the example of it.

3. Method

This paper is part of a longitudinal research that studied 360 news articles and features in print and online English language media over the period of 2003-2010. The specific empirical research material is the British and U.S Quality newspapers. The articles were randomly selected from English language newspapers TheNewYorkTimes,TheWashingtonPost,TheIndependent,TheGuardian and The Telegraph. The study employs a qualitative method of research (Johnson & Christensen, 2008; Creswell, 2003) and relies on a linguistic, semiotic and content analysis of media texts (Atkin, 2010; Barthes, 1957; Gaines, 2001; Searle, 1969; Sonesson, 1989). Text analysis and coding were employed in qualitative data analysis. The study provides a theoretical framework and elaborates on how myth shall be communicated in media texts. Based on the literature review it summarizes the characteristics and ways of perception of media texts considering that media texts published online shall consist of linguistic signs, and other mediums of communication. To find cases of myth creation, mainly news stories and features that conveyed historical, cultural or social messages were explored.

4. Findings and Discussion

The majority of researchers assume that myth is a unity of social and cultural meanings attached to a sign. It is also important to consider what connection shall exist between media and myth and to what extent media shall create myth on its own (Kopaleishvili & Goksadze, 2005, p. 161).

Media covers certain events, news related to social groups or famous persons. In accordance to what information is gathered in press about a certain group, politicians or celebrities, relevant myth is created in the society. This assessment or strive to myth creation linguistically is revealed in the selection of words with denotative and connotative meanings, epithets and metaphors. For example, one and the same group in different times and by different media shall be labeled as “terrorist” or “freedom fighter”. Similarly, a detainee shall be called a tourist or a spy. These opposite but ironically interrelated words have different connotations and meanings. They may be interrelated depending on which of the two sides is covering the news (Kopaleishvili & Goksadze, 2005, p. 161).

As an example of myth creation, assigning meanings to the signifier shall be very evident in news articles. The pragmatic intention of an author and strive to myth creation is shown in the style of narration an author has selected.

American female soldier, Jessica Lynch, became a national hero during the 2003 war in Iraq. As the media had covered her story, meanings accrued to her name established a myth, an image she had symbolized for her fellow countrymen.

We could bring a couple of examples of news coverage of the US press. She was symbolized with the idea of heroism as the media wrote that Lynch fought fiercely,

shot several enemy soldiers, firing her weapon until she ran out of ammunition, was fighting to death and did not want to be taken alive (Schmidt & Loeb, 2003).

In the narration about a national hero, the media covered not only the story of a hero, but described the emotions and reactions of receivers of the information, the readers and audience, members of the society.

Apart from traditional media channels the role of internet and online journalism was very important in this particular case. A special website was created about Jessica Lynch, and online forums were published. Most members of the society left their comments of admiration about her heroism. This example shows how media can support development of a public opinion and create myth, which will be upheld by the members of the society. On the other hand, for media professionals this case demonstrated the significance of not only print but online journalism in formation of a public opinion. The news stories on Lynch’s heroism in print newspapers and their online versions were identical.

The content analysis of international news on ethnic war outbreak between Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan in 2010 is a good example of how already established myths are represented in the narrative in a new historic context. The tension between the Kyrgyz and Uzbek youth started in the city of Osh in June 2010. The article published by TheGuardian recollects the ruling of Josef Stalin as during his times the disputed land had been split between the three Soviet Republics Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (Harding & agencies, 2010). The British media outlet reminds to its audience that the myth related to the Soviet Union leader Josef Stalin is his dictatorship governance describing him with an epithet “dictator” (Harding & agencies, 2010). Decades later, the coverage of ethnic war between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan demonstrated new actors in the region, the United States, Russia as a legal predecessor of Soviet troops and the UN (Walker, 2010; Harding & agencies, 2010). The meaning accrued to the United States in media texts in the ethnic violence in Central Asia which took place in 2010 is mainly of peacekeeping. The media covering the news stated the US Embassy in Kyrgyzstan called for “a respect for rule of law” (Walker, 2010; Harding & agencies, 2010). The studied news stories and features covering the ethnic violence employed the following narrative styles: inverted pyramid style with summary and descriptive leads. The articles published online were characterized with similar narration style as in print.

When it comes to story-telling and narration, a significant question is how online journalism is different from traditional channels of media such as newspapers, TV and radio and what it shall offer to its consumers. First of all, online journalism opens up a possibility of non-linear perception of information. Bardoel (2002) considers that interactivity, hypertextuality, multimediality and a-synchronicity are common in online journalism (p. 505). At the same time, he agrees with the argument that online newspapers maintain the same structure as their printed versions. In interactivity Bardoel (2002) means “online environment”; hypertextuality refers to the “phenomenon of hypertexts and hyperlinks”; multimediality describes “convergence of traditional media formats—(moving) image, text, sound—in one story told online”; and a-synchronicity refers to “network journalism” considering an aspect “that information can be either consumed instantaneously—as is the case with radio and television consumption—or can be postponed—which is a characteristic of printed material” (pp. 504-505). As mentioned above, for traditional newspapers a linear model is common, however internet is characterized by a nonlinear way of information consumption, as consumers of the website shall receive information according to several ways—video, audio, photo, graphic images and live TV programmes. A newspaper website provides linear products, however, non-linear perception takes place when it comes to multimedia production (slideshow, video and audio) (Ward, 2002).

Today the issue of print newspaper stories and their internet versions are mostly identical. However, if in the print newspaper the advantage has been given to the inverted pyramid style, in the internet version we observe an attempt of separating themes in the article in order to simplify perception of information. Ward (2002) considers that segmentation of articles takes place according to a number of principles: (a) how important is the event, what is the size of the article, if it is accompanied by multimedia; (b) what are the needs and interests of consumers; and (c) in addition to textual side what other mediums of information will be used.

Despite this difference, according to our findings, most of the news articles published in online newspapers are identical to their print copies. However, the internet opens a space for more possibilities through combination of different media channels, which result in non-linear ways of news perception. Thus, the articles published online and reviewed in this study mostly provided a similar structure as those in print. However, online journalism still offers room for difference and this is not just a combination of other mediums of communication.

5. Conclusion

To sum up, a common definition of myth is that it is a system of communication, it is a message, signified (Barthes, 1957) and the study of myth is the realm of semiology as well as semiotics. Myth observed in media texts conveys not only denotative meaning but connotative meaning attached to a sign. It is a system of signifiers, where social, historical and cultural meanings are connected with a sign (Barthes, 1957; Turner, 2005; Rayner, Wall & Kruger, 2001; Barthes in Bignell, 1997; Gaines, 2001). Myth is a key concept in exploring “the construction of meaning in media narratives” and represents “popular ideas” connected to different aspects of human life (Morales, 2013, pp. 3-34). Myth is easier to observe when media texts contain themes related to human values. In narration a sign, person, object, or a story acquires meaning that creates myth or revives the already established myth. Narrative construction in creating or conveying the myth adheres to the general narrative formula and common narrative techniques characteristic of media. To summarize the characteristics of narrative construction of print and online journalism, the following findings are put forward by this research: First, online newspapers present a unity of text, audio and video. Online newspapers consist of linear production, but the perception of information by consumers is non-linear since the websites shall provide other mediums of information. Second, online news shall be characterized with interactivity, hypertextuality, multimediality and a-synchronicity (Bardoel, 2002). And finally, when it comes to creating or conveying myth in written news stories and features, media texts published online or in print exhibit similar patterns in narration, although the privilege of online journalism remains in using different mediums of communication, which adds value to the meanings accrued to a certain story.