China-Africa Cooperation in Poverty Reduction: Evolution of Concepts and Characteristics of Practices

An Chunying

Today’s China-Africa relations have reached the crucial stage of building on past achievements and forging ahead. African countries look forward to strengthening practical cooperation, sharing opportunities and meeting challenges together with China. China’s achievements in poverty reduction have provided precious experience for African countries, who are eager to integrate China’s experience, a global public good, into their own development practices. In this context, China shall not settle for mere material considerations about trade and investment ties in its relations with Africa, but should further the collaborative efforts of poverty reduction to build a China-Africa community with a shared future on a steady and substantial basis, respond to the aspirations of African countries, and advance China-Africa traditional friendship to an even higher level with new momentum.

Concepts of Poverty Reduction in China’s Africa Policy

China’s Africa policy is mainly codified in its government declarations and agreements signed with the African side. In addition, relevant speeches, opinions and views given by Chinese leaders also serve as guidelines for China’s cooperation with Africa. China’s poverty reduction concepts in its Africa policy can be derived from all of the above sources. Generally speaking, since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, its notion of poverty reduction in Africa has gone through three stages, as reflected in the means and contents of corresponding China-Africa cooperation.

Poverty reduction through assistance

Between the 1950s and the 1970s, national liberation movements on the African continent reached a climax, with sovereign states established one after another. It was of utmost urgency for African countries then to maintain and consolidate their sovereign independence, achieve national economic development and shake off poverty and backwardness. Recognizing the strength demonstrated by the rise of African nation-states, Mao Zedong and other Chinese leaders regarded African countries as China’s reliable friends and put forward a momentous decision to provide African countries with internationalist assistance for national independence and state-building.

During this period, China’s poverty reduction scheme for Africa was part of its assistance policy system, whose main contents include the following. First, establishing the principle of equality and mutual benefit. At the Bandung Conference in April 1955, Premier Zhou Enlai clearly and comprehensively put forward the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence guiding China’s foreign relations. From December 1963 to February 1964, during his visits to ten African countries, Premier Zhou, on behalf of the Chinese government, proposed the five principles concerning China’s relations with African and Arab countries and the eight principles governing China’s economic and technological aid to other countries,1“Eight Principles for Foreign Economic and Technological Assistance,” Selected Diplomatic Works of Zhou Enlai, CCCPC Party Literature Publishing House, 1990, pp.388-389.marking the formal formation of China’s policy on aid to Africa. Second, advocating charitable internationalism in China’s relations with Africa. In 1963, when meeting with visiting African friends, Mao Zedong made it clear that “it is our internationalist duty that we, as the people who have won the revolutionary victory, help the people who are still fighting for liberation.”2“Talks in Meeting with African Friends,” Mao Zedong’s Manuscripts Since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China, Vol.10, CCCPC Party Literature Publishing House, 1996, p.340.In June 1975, when Deng Xiaoping met with a delegation of Thai parliamentarians headed by Prasit Kanchanawat, he pointed out: “It is for the people of Asia to run the affairs of Asia, so it is for Africa. Although China is an underdeveloped Third World country, we still have to fulfill our internationalist duty and provide some help to many countries in the Third World within our capacity. It’s not much help, but it’s our obligation. And it comes with no political strings attached. This is one of our principles.”3Deng Xiaoping’s Chronicle 1975-1997 (I), CCCPC Party Literature Publishing House, 2004, p.58.Third, carrying out international development cooperation based on national conditions, with priority given to self-reliance. In May 1960, when meeting with social and peace activists, trade unions, youths and students from 12 African countries and regions, Mao Zedong said: “Some of China’s experience may serve as your reference, including experience of revolution and nation-building. However, I would like to remind my friends that China has its historical conditions and you have your own. China’s experience can only serve as your reference.”4“Imperialism Is Not Horrible,” Selected Diplomatic Works of Mao Zedong, CCCPC Party Literature Publishing House & World Affairs Press, 1994, p.413.In August 1975, while meeting a delegation of the Seychelles People’s United Party, led by France-Albert René, Deng Xiaoping pointed out that the key for Seychelles to develop was to “focus on domestic development and rely on itself, solve the problems of food, clothing, housing and transportation for its people, and develop friendly relations with the Third World.”5Deng Xiaoping’s Chronicle 1975-1997 (I), p.79.

During this interval, China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction was initially put under the framework of China’s assistance to Africa. Although expressions such as “shake off poverty” and “people’s livelihood” did not appear in China’s Africa policy, given different historical tasks and international environments facing the two sides, China’s policy on assistance to Africa focused on helping African countries maintain and consolidate their national independence, develop their economies and eliminate poverty, so as to lay the political cornerstone for their national prosperity and strength as well as a foundation for poverty reduction. It should be noted that the eight principles governing China’s aid to other countries was a pioneering policy declaration of China in its relations with Africa, which provided the ideological basis for all subsequent cooperation in poverty reduction. The core conceptions of equality and mutual benefit and the emphasis on helping recipient countries improve their own development capacity have been upheld to this day.

Poverty reduction through economic growth

In the 1980s and 1990s, China adopted the policy of focusing on economic construction and carried out reform and opening-up, while African countries began to implement economic adjustments. The development of national economies became the focus of work in both China and African countries. Against this background, China-Africa development cooperation took on new features.

First, while giving priority to the development needs of African countries, China’s Africa policy would at the same time appropriately reflect China’s own development agenda. In January 1983, China announced the four principles on economic and technological cooperation with African countries, namely “equality and mutual benefit, emphasis on practical results, diversity in form, and pursuit of common development.” As reflected by the principles, China and Africa not only adhered to the principle of equality and mutual benefit in development cooperation, but also stressed on the results of cooperation and diversity of cooperation forms, with the ultimate goal of achieving common economic and social development on both sides. In the 1990s, in the course of implementing the strategies of “market diversification” and “two markets (domestic and foreign) and two resources,” China adjusted its mode of foreign aid, focusing on government loans with discounted interest and joint ventures. During his visit to Africa in May 1996, President Jiang Zemin proposed to consolidate and develop long-term, stable and comprehensive cooperative relations with African countries for the 21st century, emphasizing mutual benefit and common development. “We will encourage cooperation between businesses of the two sides, and particularly encourage those Chinese companies with certain strength to carry out mutually beneficial cooperation in different sizes, fields and forms in Africa,” he said.6“Creating a New Historical Monument for China-Africa Friendship: Speech at the Organization of African Unity,” Selected Works of Jiang Zemin, Vo.1, People’s Publishing House, 2006, p.529.Second, the Chinese government continued to uphold the concepts of sincere friendship and assistance within its capacity. When Deng Xiaoping met with Mali’s President Moussa Traoré in June 1986, he forecast that by the end of the 20th century when China would lift itself out of poverty and establish a well-off society, “China still belongs to the Third World, which is the basis of our policy … Even if China successfully develops itself, it will still regard itself as a Third World country. We must not forget any of our poor friends in the Third World and must help bring them out of poverty. When China becomes a medium-level developed country, we will still extend a helping hand. Only in this way can we truly demonstrate that China is pursuing socialism.”7Deng Xiaoping’s Chronicle 1975-1997 (II), CCCPC Party Literature Publishing House, 2004, p. 1124.

During this period, what was changed and what was not in China’s Africa policy were always in line with the evolving circumstances of social development on both sides. Regarding China’s policy on poverty reduction in Africa, it was the fulcrum of cooperation that China took advantage of its vigorous economic growth to directly or indirectly improve the livelihood of African people and achieve poverty reduction.

Poverty reduction through development

Since the beginning of the 21st century, conditions in China and Africa as well as the China-Africa relations have evolved into a new stage. As for China, the rapid growth of its economy, the continuous improvement of its people’s living standards, and the strengthening of its comprehensive national strength have attracted much attention from the international community. Although African countries enjoy sound economic development, most of them have not been able to fundamentally overcome the burden of poverty. Poverty reduction and development are therefore urgently needed by African countries. In terms of China-Africa relations, mutual ties have been intensified at a fast rate since 2000, and the comprehensive strategic partnership between the two sides has been advancing steadily. In particular, the establishment of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) is a milestone in the history of China-Africa relations, which further institutionalizes and systematically elaborates their cooperation on poverty reduction. During this period, China and Africa have expanded and deepened their strategies and policy connotations of poverty reduction on an unprecedented scale.

First, the two sides uphold justice while pursuing shared interests, and view their cooperation in poverty reduction from the strategic height of building a community with a shared future for mankind. Both China and Africa belong to the developing world, and shoulder the mission of developing their countries and improving people’s livelihood. In China’s view, continued poverty on the African continent is not in the interest of the world, and China will help African countries achieve sustainable economic and social development. In a speech delivered in Tanzania in March 2013, President Xi Jinping stated that the history of China-Africa relations demonstrated that “China and Africa have always been a community with a shared future.” He also fully expounded the connotations of “sincerity, real results, affinity and good faith” in China’s Africa policy.8“Xi Jinping’s Speech at Nyerere International Conference Center, Tanzania,” in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China, Foreign Languages Press, 2014, pp.306-310.Based on this new concept for its Africa policy, China has repeatedly stressed the importance of “upholding justice while pursuing interests” in its relationship toward Africa. As China’s Africa Policy Paper, released in December 2015, points out, “While valuing friendship and justice as well as shared interests, China places more importance on the former. The core principle is to connect assistance to developing countries, including those in Africa, for their independent and sustainable development with China’s own development, achieve win-win cooperation and common development, and promote more balanced, inclusive and sustainable development of the world at large.”9“Full Text: China’s Second Africa Policy Paper,” China Daily, December 5, 2015, https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/XiattendsParisclimateconference/2015-12/05/content_22632874.htm.In his speech at the opening ceremony of the FOCAC Beijing summit in 2018, Xi Jinping articulated something similar: “China pursues common interests and puts friendship first in pursuing cooperation … it is for China to complement Africa’s development through its own growth, and it is for both China and Africa to pursue win-win cooperation and common development. In doing so, China follows the principle of giving more and taking less, giving before taking and giving without asking for return … With top priority given to the interests of Chinese and African peoples, China advances its cooperation with Africa to improve the well-being of Chinese and African peoples and deliver more benefits to them.”10“Full text of Chinese President Xi Jinping’s Speech at Opening Ceremony of 2018 FOCAC Beijing Summit,” Xinhua, September 3, 2018, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-09/03/c_129946189.htm.The principle of “putting friendship first” in China-Africa cooperation for poverty reduction11Luo Jianbo, “Upholding Justice while Pursuing Shared Interests and China’s Diplomacy with Developing Countries,” West Asia and Africa, No.5, 2018, p.11.reflects China’s renewed understanding of the international situation and the development status of itself and African countries. It embodies the value of promoting justice and integrating interests in contemporary Chinese diplomacy, and demonstrates China’s strong sense of mission and responsibility as a major developing country. China-Africa cooperation not only requires “momentum,” but also needs to produce “tangible results,” thus closely integrating the interests of the Chinese people with those of the African people. It can be concluded from this that poverty reduction has been raised to a higher level on the priority list of China-Africa cooperation.

Second, China seeks to promote poverty reduction through development, and a more comprehensive range of measures has been taken

for the cooperation in poverty reduction. With a deeper understanding by the international community of what really constitutes poverty and the clarification of China’s poverty reduction concepts, China recognizes that the root causes of poverty in Africa are multi-faceted and mainly associated with inadequate development. In the words of President Xi Jinping: “Development holds the master key to solving all problems.”12Xi Jinping, “Open a New Era of China-Africa Win-Win Cooperation and Common Development: Address at the Opening Ceremony of the Johannesburg Summit of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation,” People.com.cn, December 4, 2015, http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/1204/c1001-27892314.html.Based on this, the policy on poverty reduction in Africa issued by the Chinese government covers a wide variety of issues concerning Africa’s development. They are designed to guide the two sides to carry out poverty reduction cooperation in broader and more far-reaching areas, thus injecting new contents into China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation. The Johannesburg Action Plan (2016-2018) and the Beijing Action Plan (2019-2021), adopted by the two FOCAC summits in 2015 and 2018, put forward a multi-disciplinary cooperation plan covering Africa’s industrialization, agricultural modernization, infrastructure, finance, green development, trade and investment facilitation, poverty alleviation, people’s well-being, public health, culture, peace and security. It highlights the new dimensions in China’s poverty reduction policy toward Africa.

Development and Changes of the China-Africa Cooperation Model on Poverty Reduction

Over the past 70 years, from 1949 to 2019, China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction has not only evolved at the conceptual level, but also served as a guide to action for deepening the cooperation toward transformation, acceleration and upgrading.

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From government-led assistance to multi-stakeholder participation

Regarding stakeholders in China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction, before the 1990s, inter-governmental mechanisms dominated cooperation efforts in economic and social development between China and Africa, as during the period there were few actors in China involving in the cooperation. After the mid-1990s however, Chinese companies began to operate Africa in search for market-oriented investment opportunities. At the same time, a growing number of NGOs in China were expanding public-interest cooperation in poverty alleviation from home to abroad. Joining with relevant government departments, these two actors increased their participation in the China-Africa poverty reduction agenda.

First, the government plays a major role in executing poverty reduction programs through planned and sustained large-scale collaborative projects. Both in the early phases of the PRC and in the 21st century, the Chinese government has always been involved in poverty reduction cooperation in Africa, playing an important leading role in terms of the scope, scale and intensity of such cooperation. First, as the main provider of mandatory institutional supply, and the manager and user of public resources, the government can effectively advance the process and effect of China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation through policy tools. For example, in response to the lack of medical care and the suffering of African people, since 1963, when the first Chinese medical team was sent to Algeria, the Chinese government has continued to send medical personnel to Africa through top-down institutional arrangements. Second, the government, with its own administrative resources, has implemented China’s poverty reduction plans in Africa in a systematic way through relevant departments such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Commerce, Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Education, thus integrating aid with poverty reduction. For example, the Ministry of Commerce has vigorously encouraged Chinese state-owned enterprises and private companies to carry out mutually beneficial forms of cooperation in terms of trade, investment and employment in Africa. The Ministry of Agriculture has undertaken China’s assistance and cooperation in agriculture-related projects, sending agrotechnicians to African countries to set up demonstration centers for agricultural technologies and carry out training programs for agricultural professionals and technical workers. In this framework of governmental assistance, the Ministry of Education is responsible for coordinating and arranging the reception of African students with relevant domestic colleges and universities, while dispatching volunteering Chinese students to African countries in accordance with agreements and providing services in many fields, such as Chinese language teaching, medical and health care, physical education, information technology, and international rescue. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism has worked with relevant African countries in implementing a number of activities to promote cultural and peopleto-people exchanges and mutual learning between China and Africa. The National Health Commission is responsible for sending medical teams to Africa, providing assistance in epidemic prevention and control and donating medical supplies. China Development Bank and the Export-Import Bank of China, as two major national policy banks, are offering effective financial services to support the investment and assistance projects of Chinese enterprises in Africa.

Second, the economic and social benefits generated by the investment activities of the business community have directly or indirectly contributed to poverty reduction in Africa. Chinese enterprises started investing in Africa on a modest scale in the 1980s, and it was not until the 1990s that they began to regard Africa as an important destination for their international operations and overseas investment cooperation. By the end of 2017, about 3,413 Chinese enterprises had invested in Africa.13Ministry of Commerce, State Statistical Bureau, and State Administration of Foreign Exchange of China, “Statistical Bulletin of China’s Overseas Direct Investment in 2017,” http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/article/tongjiziliao/dgzz/201809/20180902791492.shtm.With their investment and business activities in Africa, Chinese enterprises have helped Africa in their poverty reduction and development ambitions in the following ways. First, Chinese enterprises provide financial support for African countries to implement economic and social development plans, by creating output value through investment and increasing tax revenues of host countries. By the end of 2017, Chinese enterprises had invested in setting up 25 special economic zones in Africa, generating an output value of US$18.9 billion, and paid $900 million in taxes.14“China’s Investment Stock in Africa Exceeds US$100 Billion,” Guangming, August 29, 2018, http://economy.gmw.cn/2018-08/29/content_30846138.htm.This has contributed to Africa’s economic development and, to some extent, helped host countries implement national poverty reduction strategies. Second, Chinese enterprises seek to create jobs for the local people, so that they can participate in economic activities to broaden their sources of income and improve the income level of the poor. The Zambia-China Economic and Trade Cooperation Zone, for example, increased the number of jobs created in the country from 2,647 to 7,251 between 2007 and 2017.15Materials provided by China Nonferrous Group, organizer of the Zambia-China Economic and Trade Cooperation Zone.Third, Chinese enterprises in Africa focus on technology transfer in their investment projects. They train skilled technical personnel in host countries through vocational training and short-term technical courses, so as to improve the quality of local human resources and help African countries upgrade their industries. Within four years of construction of the Maputo–Katembe Bridge, the largest suspension cross-sea bridge in Africa, the project has helped train more than 5,000 local welders, lathe workers, steel bar workers, drivers, mechanical operators and other technical personnel. This project is regarded as an education site for training local industrial workers in Mozambique.16Materials provided by China Communications Construction, operator of the Maputo–Katembe Bridge project.Fourth, by donating funds, building roads, bridges, wells, hospitals and schools, Chinese enterprises take the initiative to fulfill their corporate social responsibilities and partake in the public welfare undertakings of regional communities, so as to benefit local people and improve their livelihood. For example, during the operation of CNPC’s refinery project in Niger, off-site water pipelines were used to build water supply zones for nearby villagers, and more than 160 wells were drilled deep in the Sahara Desert.17Zhang Jun and Wang Hongyi, “Achievements of China Petroleum’s Business in Africa and Suggestions on Policy Improvement,” Africa Development Report (2015-2016), Social Sciences Academic Press (China), 2016, p.55.

Third, Chinese NGOs have become a new force in China’s poverty reduction engagement with Africa by carrying out charity and poverty relief projects in Africa. NGOs are the product of a market economy to a certain stage and are one of the organizational carriers of social works in public affairs. Set apart from the government’s use of political and economic resources to implement national poverty reduction policies, and from the business community’s fulfillment of social responsibilities to promote poverty reduction, NGOs mainly engage in raising social awareness through interaction to mobilize all social actors to participate in poverty reduction. According to historical data, China’s NGOs have grown gradually since 1978, whereas their participation in poverty reduction cooperation with Africa started at the beginning of the 21st century. China NGO Network for International Exchanges, China Foundation for Poverty Alleviation, China Youth Development Foundation and other domestic NGOs associated with the agenda of reducing poverty have jointly explored cooperation with African countries in poverty reduction. The “smiling children program” project, which was launched by the China Foundation for Poverty Alleviation, is a typical case in point. The program provides free breakfasts to hungry children in recipient countries, and has been implemented in Sudan and Ethiopia. In Sudan, the program has benefited thousands of children in primary schools since it was officially launched in August 2015.

In general, the government, enterprises and NGOs each play their unique role in poverty reduction cooperation with Africa. The government takes livelihood assistance as its priority. The projects implemented by the government are sustainably organized, planned and funded, and have become the most important support for poverty reduction cooperation with Africa. Although enterprises and NGOs have been involved in the cause of African poverty alleviation for only a little more than 20 years, their participation has gradually expanded and deepened with the increased momentum of China-Africa common development, which has allowed them to play a powerful role in complementing intergovernmental poverty reduction cooperation.

From cooperation in traditional fields to human resources development

With the establishment of the International Poverty Reduction Center in China in 2005, China’s human resources training related to poverty reduction has entered a period of systematic planning and institutional structuring. Simultaneously, the content of China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation has changed from the conventional “survival-oriented poverty alleviation” to the “development-oriented poverty alleviation” aimed at improving the ability of Africa’s poor population to lift themselves out of poverty.

China, using its experience and capacity in economic and social development, has had long-term engagement in poverty reduction cooperation aimed at satisfying the basic needs of the poor in Africa since the independence of African countries. This is mainly evidenced in the following aspects. First, China supports the development of public infrastructure in Africa to improve the working and living conditions for the poor and directly benefit the local communities. These infrastructure projects include roads, bridges, housing, canals, etc. For example, the China-assisted Kambia Bridge project in Sierra Leone has effectively improved the land transportation conditions in the northwest of the country, lowered transaction costs, and benefited local producers. Second, China has been carrying out various forms of collaboration to increase the level of food security in poor areas. Main practices in this regard include: helping with agricultural infrastructure, such as the Poilao Dam in Cape Verde; building farms, like in Uganda, Ghana, Niger and Rwanda; providing agricultural material assistance and a certain amount of funds in emergency humanitarian food aid to African countries; sending agrotechnical experts to teach breeding, seed selection, sowing, field management and other farming techniques. Third, medical aid to Africa has been the most long-standing poverty reduction project under China-Africa cooperation, involving the largest number of countries and achieving the most prominent results. By the end of 2016, China had sent more than 20,000 medical teams to 48 African countries.18Institute of International Trade and Economic Cooperation of the Ministry of Commerce, ed., Report on Economic and Trade Relations between China and Africa 2017, p.18.It can be summarized that in the second half of the 20th century, China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation mainly focused on poverty alleviation through cooperation in agriculture, medical care, infrastructure building and other fields immediately related to reducing poverty. Assistance services were provided to guarantee the basic survival needs of Africa’s poor population.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, China’s large-scale poverty reduction efforts have aroused great interest of those African countries that are also a part of the developing world. Investigations were made about China’s philosophy of poverty reduction, and how it had provided for successful alleviation of poverty. At the same time, China has become aware of the importance of education in its poverty reduction cooperation with Africa. Therefore, China and Africa began to pay more attention to the exchange of experience in poverty reduction and development. The sharing and exchange of knowledge on poverty reduction have become institutionalized and more frequent than in previous stages. First, numerous forums and seminars on poverty reduction experience have been held. Since its first meeting in November 2010, the Africa-China Poverty Reduction and Development Conference19The conference was initially sponsored by the International Poverty Reduction Center in China and the United Nations Development Program.has become a core platform for the two sides’ poverty reduction exchanges. This annuallyheld event has been included in the FOCAC framework and is now known as the FOCAC Africa-China Poverty Reduction and Development Conference.” Second, China is holding short-term training courses for African countries. The China Agricultural University, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and the Academy for International Business Officials of the Ministry of Commerce often hold seminars on issues related to poverty reduction and development in Africa. The International Poverty Reduction Center in China is the most active in organizing international poverty reduction seminars for African countries. Today, the center has established a comprehensive training system for international efforts to lift population out of poverty. From 2005 to the end of 2018, the center held 139 training courses on overseas poverty reduction, 106 of which were for Africa, and trained 2,219 participants from 52 African countries in a bid to share China’s experience in its own battle against mass poverty.20According to information on the website of the International Poverty Reduction Center in China, http://www.iprcc.org.cn.Through theoretical explanation, case studies, field visits and participatory discussions, the students were able to improve their perceptual and rational understanding of poverty reduction efforts in China. Third, through reciprocal interaction between “going global” and “bringing in,” China carries out medium- to long-term cooperation in human resources development. In addition to sending volunteers to Africa and providing government scholarships for incoming young students from African countries, China established the Institute of South-South Cooperation and Development at Peking University in 2016, with master and doctoral degree programs and non-degree training programs. With a wide range of courses, the institute hopes to cultivate talents for the modernization of national governance system and capacity in developing countries. The first class of students came from Ethiopia, Burundi, Eritrea and Zimbabwe, among others. The above-mentioned cooperation in training and human resources management is conducive to enhancing the independent capacity for poverty reduction and development of recipient countries.

To sum up, China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction has covered a wide range of areas, including food security, industrial development, infrastructure construction, medical and health care, development experience sharing and capacity building, debt relief, and humanitarian assistance. It reflects that the two sides have adopted a holistic approach to their cooperation in poverty reduction. The contents of their cooperation have been increasingly extended, and have shifted from a predominantly philanthropic purpose in the past to fulfilling the goal of improving the working and living conditions of poor people in Africa, enhancing their capacity for self-development and self-reliant poverty reduction, and sharing experience in poverty reduction and development. This demonstrates that the quality and extent of China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation is reaching to an even higher level.

From bilateral cooperation to interactions at both bilateral and multilateral levels

Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and African countries, the two sides have, in terms of formats, implemented intergovernmental poverty reduction and development cooperation projects through bilateral committees, strategic dialogues, political consultations between foreign ministries, and joint economic and trade commissions. Since the mid-1990s, as the African continent becomes more united and independent, the integration process at continental and regional levels has entered a new stage. The African Union replaced the Organization of African Unity, and set forth the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and Agenda 2063. Since the launch of reform and opening-up, China has accelerated its integration into the world system and increased its cooperation with international organizations. China-Africa relations have developed in an all-round and multi-faceted way. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, as a one-to-many multilateral mechanism for international cooperation, thus emerged. It is precisely based on these changes that the approach to China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction has been upgraded from a purely bilateral channel to a new stage of equal emphasis on both bilateral and multilateral interactions.

First, the two sides determine the direction and focus of poverty reduction cooperation, based on the FOCAC and the Outline on Strengthening Poverty Reduction Cooperation between China and the African Union. After 18 years of development, the FOCAC has become an effective mechanism for collective exchanges and dialogues between China and African countries and an important platform for deepening practical collaboration. It is also a typical example of international multilateral diplomacy featuring an approach of “X+Africa.”21Examples of the “X+Africa” diplomatic mechanism also include the United States–Africa Leaders Summit, the Tokyo International Conference on African Development, the India–Africa Forum Summit, and the Turkey-Africa Partnership Summit. See Wang Tao and Bao Jiazheng, “An Analysis of the EU-Africa Summit: From the Perspective of ‘Multilateral to Multilateral’ Mechanism,” West-Asia and Africa, No.4, 2018, p.136.The FOCAC ministerial meeting is usually held every three years, with representatives of the Chinese government and the African Union as well as political leaders of African countries attending, to jointly discuss and formulate the general direction and outline for cooperation in the coming three years in the form of declarations and action plans. After conclusion of the meeting, proposals made by the two sides will be followed up by the senior officials’ meeting, the follow-up committee and other coordinating bodies responsible for promoting implementation. For example, the FOCAC Beijing summit in 2018 identified the essence of building a China-Africa community with a shared future, featuring joint responsibility, win-win cooperation, happiness for all, cultural prosperity, common security, and harmony between man and nature. The summit also outlined initiatives to strengthen cooperation in industrial promotion, infrastructure connectivity, trade facilitation, green development, capacity building, health care, people-to-people exchange, and peace and security. The FOCAC has served as a leading multilateral institutional platform for Africa’s poverty reduction efforts and the common development of China and Africa. In particular, the abovementioned Outline on Strengthening Poverty Reduction Cooperation, reached by China and the African Union when Premier Li Keqiang visited the AU headquarters in May 2014, is a policy document focusing on poverty reduction cooperation. The 15-point Outline explains the necessity and urgency of China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction, and calls for “upholding the principle of inclusiveness and diversity.” According to the Outline, the two sides should explore additional cooperative approaches in industrialization, infrastructure, food security, youth development, vocational and technical training, and mutual learning on poverty reduction.22“Outline on Strengthening Poverty Reduction Cooperation between China and the African Union,” Central People’s Government of China, May 6, 2014, http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2014-05/06/content_2672503.htm.Both the FOCAC and the Outline constitute a general framework of poverty reduction cooperation agreed by China and Africa through multilateral channels, whereas specific projects must be implemented through bilateral channels. Therefore, China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction is a combination of bilateral and multilateral approaches.

Second, China participates in poverty alleviation projects in Africa under the framework of South-South cooperation with various international organizations or third parties. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) launched the Special Program for Food Security under the South-South cooperation framework in 1996. China has been actively involved in the program since its inception, and signed a memorandum of cooperation with the FAO in 2006, becoming the first country to establish a strategic partnership for South-South cooperation with the FAO. Since then, cooperation between the two sides has been deepening in the following aspects. First, providing financial support. In 2005 and 2015, China donated US$30 million and $50 million respectively to the FAO trust fund for South-South cooperation to support agricultural and rural development projects in developing countries, including African ones. Second, sending agrotechnical experts to conduct policy research, field demonstrations of agricultural production techniques and personnel training, covering fields such as aquaculture, crop production, irrigation, livestock and poultry breeding, agroforestry, and pest control. By the end of 2018, China had sent nearly 1,100 agrotechnical experts to 12 African countries, namely Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Liberia, Namibia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Uganda, establishing China as the main leader and supporter of South-South cooperation.23“South-South Cooperation,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, http://www.fao.org/partnerships/south-south-cooperation/en.In addition, China has conducted third-party cooperation with the US-based Gates Foundation at agrotechnical demonstration centers in Mozambique and Zambia. This shows the openness of China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction. Together with other countries in the world, China has contributed its wisdom and solutions to the sustainable development goals of developing countries.

China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation conforms to the development and changes in national conditions on both sides, with more social forces and actors involved. In light of the new themes and trends of international cooperation, it has also added sustainable development and capacity building in content in pursuit of innovation on the basis of inheritance. Cooperation platforms have also been diversified and the number of partners has increased, thus highlighting the characteristics of diversity, innovation and sustainability. Today, the cooperation enjoys a firmer foundation, greater resources and stronger development. China has become a major external force for promoting poverty reduction and development in Africa.

Focuses of Deepening China-Africa Poverty Reduction Cooperation

At present, China’s Africa policy is guided by the principles of “sincerity, real results, affinity and good faith” and “upholding justice while pursuing shared interests,” and its goal is to build a more closely connected China-Africa community with a shared future. With the implementation of the “eight major initiatives,” China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction has entered a new era, or a “3.0 version,” characterized by steady and sustained progress. The new positioning of China-Africa relations calls for accelerated improvement and higher quality of their cooperation in poverty reduction, with the objective of improving African people’s livelihood and forging a new landmark for a China-Africa community with a shared future. To better advance the upgraded China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation, we need to clarify the following issues.

Recognizing changes in environment of poverty reduction cooperation

At the international level, the role of South-South cooperation in the global development system has undergone major changes, moving from the periphery to a central position in international development cooperation together with North-South cooperation. Regarding international actors engaging in poverty reduction in Africa, developed countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and international organizations such as the European Union and the World Bank have maintained their traditional influence on development cooperation with Africa, based on historical ties and strategic considerations. In recent decades, however, emerging economies such as China, Brazil, India and Turkey have become important players in development cooperation with Africa as a consequence of their strong economic growth. The focus of South-South cooperation has also shifted from political issues to the economic area. The status of developing countries on the stage of international development cooperation has thus witnessed changes, as they now stand in the “spotlight” alongside the countries of the North.

Currently, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have replaced the earlier Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as the bearer of international development cooperation. The SDGs, including 17 goals and 169 targets, have something in common with the MDGs, but there are also innovations, such as the addition of targets concerning the system and conditions of poverty reduction. This indicates the international community’s deeper understanding of poverty and anti-poverty issues and that relevant cooperation among countries should be better synergized to the new mechanism of international development cooperation. Given China’s role as a substantial contributor to global poverty reduction, the international community also expects China to assume more responsibilities.

Defining leadership in China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation

China and African nations are equally developing countries and they face many similar development-related problems in their drive for modernization. Therefore, China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation essentially consists of mutual support between developing countries and is an integral part of South-South cooperation. Moreover, such cooperation in poverty reduction has gone beyond mere assistance. It is a decisive driving force for China and Africa to realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation and the African Dream, and also reflects their joint pursuit of sustainable economic and social development. As far as bilateral cooperation is concerned, China needs to respect Africa’s strategic autonomy in the field of poverty reduction and development, which means that African countries can independently choose a suitable path for their poverty reduction and development strategies. In December 2015, President Xi Jinping pointed out in his speech at the opening ceremony of the FOCAC Johannesburg summit: “China strongly believes that Africa belongs to the African people and that African affairs should be decided by the African people.”24Xi Jinping, “Open a New Era of China-Africa Win-Win Cooperation and Common Development: Address at the Opening Ceremony of the Johannesburg Summit of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation.”In his speech at the FOCAC Beijing summit in September 2018, President Xi reiterated China’s commitment to pursuing a “five-no” approach in cooperation with Africa, including “no interference in African countries’ pursuit of development paths that fit their national conditions” and “no imposition of China’s own will on African countries.”25“Full text of Chinese President Xi Jinping’s Speech at Opening Ceremony of 2018 FOCAC Beijing Summit.”The key points of the “ten cooperation plans” and “eight major initiatives” proposed during the two FOCAC summits are also in line with Africa’s Agenda 2063. This reflects China’s value orientation of pursuing international fairness, equality, harmony and cooperation. China has taken the initiative to coordinate and synergize with Africa’s strategic plan on poverty reduction, while underlining that cooperation with African nations should follow the principle of “proposed, agreed and led by Africa.”

Balanced participation of Chinese actors in poverty reduction cooperation with Africa

In terms of the actors involved in poverty reduction cooperation between China and Africa, the role of government-level assistance has been predominant throughout the history. Since the 1990s, Chinese enterprises have stepped up the pace of “going global,” which is in line with the new ideas and policies for the development of South-South cooperation. Enterprises have gradually shouldered their social responsibilities for local development, and now take charity as a social investment with valuable economic benefits. By building a people-oriented corporate culture and engaging in development projects in African local community, enterprises are able to establish a positive public image. At the same time, China’s domestic NGOs on poverty reduction and development have gradually broadened their portfolio of services, expanded their international horizon and launched a successive number of poverty reduction cooperation projects. China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation has thus formed a model led by the government and participated by multiple parties. In the near future, the government will continue to play a major role in China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation, given its vast capacity to mobilize political and economic resources and its ability of top-down execution. Meanwhile, the participation of enterprises and NGOs should be further expanded. In mobilizing NGOs to engage in the cause of poverty reduction, China can draw useful experience from the practices of developed countries and other developing economies in their poverty reduction cooperation, and construct a pluralistic yet differentiated frame of reference to help supplement and improve China’s own cooperation model. After all, the weak links in existing cooperation can be addressed by innovative thinking.

Issues of differentiation and adaptability in China-Africa poverty reduction cooperation

China’s poverty reduction strategy brings a new frame of reference and experience to Africa, mainly based on similarities of poverty on both sides. At the same time, Africa is a continent of 54 countries with major or minor differences among them. From the perspective of political stability, there are countries with severe challenges concerning peace and development, such as South Sudan and Somalia; there are stable states such as Botswana and Namibia. In terms of basic industries of the national economy, there are countries with agricultural resources such as Tanzania and Senegal; there are those with mining resources such as South Africa, Angola and Zambia; there are also those with tourism resources such as Seychelles and Mauritius. With regard to the level of economic development, there are countries with a certain industrial base such as South Africa and Kenya; there are also those without any industrial foundation such as Cape Verde and Djibouti. As for employment, there are countries with high youth employment rates, such as Ethiopia and Rwanda; there are also those with serious youth unemployment, such as Gabon and Tunisia. Regarding infrastructure, there are countries with crisscrossed highway networks such as South Africa; there are also those with backward roads such as Madagascar and Malawi. Similar instances are legion. Therefore, as the 54 African countries differ in development stage, development level and national conditions, China and Africa need to embrace inclusiveness and diversity in poverty reduction cooperation. To implement specific poverty reduction programs, China should take into account the individual characteristics of each African country, take tailor-made approaches, and carry out cooperation in a targeted way. Only by doing so can we increase the effectiveness of poverty reduction cooperation.

Objectively, China’s poverty reduction experience stems from its unique national conditions, history and culture, from the continuous exploration of new paths since the founding of the PRC 70 years ago, from the prudent practices of Chinese leaders and the Chinese people, and from the innovative thinking about poverty reduction that builds on the past and keeps pace with the times. The Chinese government has played a firm leading role in the implementation of poverty reduction policies, which is in accordance with the political culture of “strong government” in China. Relying on the political, economic and cultural resources at its disposal, this kind of potent government has a powerful ability to mobilize and intervene in national economic construction. Additionally, the Chinese government is able to formulate medium- to long-term national development goals and long-term strategic plans, and maintain the continuation and sustainability of national poverty reduction and development plans regardless of changes in government leadership. Therefore, the political culture of “strong government” provides a strong guarantee for the implementation of China’s poverty reduction policies. On the contrary, most African countries have “transplanted” or followed certain Western models in the building of their own political systems, while various ethnic and religious conflicts and party rivalries in African countries, be it concealed or evident, dissolve or erode the power of the state to a certain extent, leading to the phenomenon of “weak government and strong society.” The lack of national authority makes it impossible for the state to mobilize and integrate various resources effectively to promote national plans for poverty reduction. The present multi-party system in Africa is also a result of external intervention. It is not rooted in African society, nor does it transcend narrow tribal or regional interests. The ruling

party usually pursues its own short-term interests, rather than sets the country’s long-term development goals, when it holds state power. After a change of government, it is often difficult to sustain the original national strategy for economic and social development. Therefore, when conducting cooperation with African countries in poverty reduction, especially in the process of sharing China’s experience, China cannot simply impose or transplant its recommended solution. Rather, China’s plan should serve as reference for African nations to learn from. Most importantly, China should create a favorable external environment for African countries to explore endogenous poverty reduction models suitable for their respective national conditions.

Conclusion

In today’s world, human society has become a closely connected community of shared future, with tightly integrated interests and a high degree of interdependence. Under the China-Africa cooperative framework, poverty reduction cooperation will boost African development, consolidate the foundation of China-Africa relations, and optimize public opinions for China-Africa cooperation. Down-to-earth projects that benefit people’s livelihood will bring the people of China and Africa closer to each other, and help cement the foundation of China-Africa friendship. China-Africa cooperation in poverty reduction can also serve as reference to South-South cooperation and global poverty governance. The measures China has adopted in the cooperation such as strengthening infrastructure construction, agrotechnical support, and human resources training for the poverty reduction sector (especially sharing China’s poverty reduction experience), have enriched and further enhanced the agenda of global poverty governance. In addition to the North-South cooperation model, global poverty governance is witnessing the rise and concurrent development of the South-South cooperation model.