Development and Innovation in International Relations Studies over the 70 Years of New China

Wang Yaqi & Wu Zhicheng

The founding of New China is a great revolution in world politics in the 20th century, and it has had an extensive and profound impact on the development of international relations. Along with the historical process of New China from its founding, to its growing prosperity and increasing strength, the studies of international relations in China have also gradually evolved from imitation and learning from others to independent innovation. A systematic review of the development of China’s international relations studies over the past 70 years, summary of its experience and shortcomings, and exploration of an innovative path forward in its theoretical research, will not only help enhance the theoretical consciousness and self-confidence of China’s international relations studies, but will also make Chinese contributions to enriching the knowledge genealogy and promoting the global development of international relations studies.

Course of Development

The establishment of the People’s Republic of China put an end to the history of humiliation in Old China in terms of foreign relations and heralded a new era for China in international relations studies. After the founding of New China, in order to safeguard the country’s independence and sovereignty and break the isolation and blockade imposed by the Western capitalist camp, China “set up a new kitchen,” and “leaned to one side” on the Soviet-led socialist camp, establishing new relations and contacts with other countries in the world. The development of foreign exchanges urgently required specialized research institutions as well as specialists engaged in the field of foreign relations. In 1955, the Foreign Affairs College was founded based on the Department of Diplomacy at Renmin University, with certain specialized courses on international relations. It had the aim of cultivating cadre proficient in diplomacy and capable of carrying out relevant research. At the same time, the CPC Central Committee, the State Council and the departments concerned in the Central Military Commission also began to set up specialized research institutions to carry out research work on the Soviet Union, the United States, Japan and major countries in Europe. In 1956, the Institute of International Relations under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the predecessor of China Institute of International Studies (CIIS), was established, based upon a proposal by then Vice Foreign Minister Zhang Wentian and approved by the State Council. The Institute was affiliated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and was tasked to carry out scientific research to serve the country’s overall diplomatic strategy. In the 1960s, the Foreign Affairs Working Group of the CPC Central Committee followed Chairman Mao Zedong’s instructions, and drafted a report on strengthening research work on foreign relations. Afterwards, Peking University, Renmin University and Fudan University established departments of international politics. At the same time, a number of international research institutes under ministries and committees of the CPC Central Committee and the Central People’s Government, and some under the Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, were also established.1Wang Yizhou, “IR Studies in China: A Discipline in Transition,” World Economics and Politics, No.4, 2006, p.8.

During the Cold War, China’s international relations studies were greatly influenced by the Soviet Union, mainly introducing the Soviet experience of socialist construction and the developments of the international communist movement, disseminating the advantages of socialism, and denouncing capitalism and Western imperialism.2Li Cong, Liu Guoping and Tan Xiuying, “50 Years of International Studies in New China,” World Economics and Politics, No.12, 1999, p.6.With the development of the international situation, regional and country studies began to draw more attention, and more studies were made on various countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Although the decade-long “Cultural Revolution” led to interruption and serious destruction of the entire discipline,3Wang Jun and Dan Xingwu, 40 Years of International Relations Studies in China, Central Compilation and Translation Press, 2008, p.7.and the international relations studies in this period, with a strong ideological bent, also lacked clear awareness and theoretical thinking as an independent subject, Chinese scholars, by applying the Marxist theories and the diplomatic theories put forward by Chinese leaders, instead discussed the proletarian world revolution, the principle of state sovereignty, the theories of “three worlds” and “the intermediate zone,” and the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, reflecting China’s unique perspectives in observing and scrutinizing the world.

From China’s reform and opening-up to the end of the Cold War, China’s international relations studies entered a new stage in which people learned lessons previously ignored and began to follow developments in other countries. With the end of the “Cultural Revolution” and the launch of reform and opening-up, the development of various undertakings in China was gradually put on the right track. The study of international relations also ushered in a spring time in disciplinary development and academic research. At the beginning of 1979, following Deng Xiaoping’s urge that political science, law, sociology as well as world politics research should make up for the lost lessons,4Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol.2, People’s Publishing House, 1994, pp.180-181.some specialized courses, academic institutions and disciplinary systems were restored and new ones established. During this period, China changed its essential views on the world situation, made a scientific evaluation that peace and development was the main theme of the times and that a world war would not break out for the foreseeable future, refrained from bringing ideology into foreign affairs, and carried forward the policy of adhering to the road of peaceful development and independence. With continuous opening-up to the outside world and a profound transformation of the international and domestic situation, China’s ties with the world became increasingly close thanks to its frequent interactions with it. International problems that needed to be explained and dealt with in international relations studies became more and more complicated. Research work which focused on explaining policies and making preliminary policy suggestions was unable to meet the needs of world politics and China’s diplomatic development. With burgeoning interest in international issues across the society, relevant studies attracted increasing attention from the academic community. Professional periodicals were initiated and published, and China’s international relations institutions started to translate classic works of Western international relations theories and introduce them to Chinese audience, while exploring from an academic perspective the subject and the methodology of international relations studies. An initial disciplinary consciousness and a basic theoretical platform began to take shape in China’s international relations studies, and the proposal of international relations studies and theories with Chinese characteristics was also put forward. This shows that the studies of international relations in China had entered a stage in which theoretical research and the practical situation were equally important.5Wang Yizhou, “IR Studies in China: A Discipline in Transition,” p.9.At the same time, there was a need for independent and normative theories of international relations. However, the introduction of Western theories still remained in the stage of passive acceptance and imitation, lacking any forceful dialectical critics or independent innovative thinking.

From the end of the Cold War to the convening of the 18th CPC National Congress, China’s international relations studies entered a period of digestion, integration and diversified development. With the end of the Cold War, the bipolar structure of the United States and the Soviet Union collapsed, but the US hegemonism and unilateralism in international affairs were in the ascendancy. With the accelerated process of multi-polarization and economic globalization, global issues were incorporated into the political agenda, and profound changes were taking place in world power relations and in the international political and economic order. Under such circumstances, major international events, such as the Gulf War, the US air raid against Yugoslavia, the September 11 terrorist attacks, China’s accession to the WTO, the war in Afghanistan and the war in Iraq, all highlighted new changes in the world’s security situation and the new characteristics of globalization. The fundamental changes in the global structure and the new needs for theoretical interpretation served as a catalyst for the development of China’s international relations studies. In addition to Western mainstream theories such as realism, liberalism and constructivism, diversified theoretical paradigms involving the world system theory, the English school, the critical theory, feminism, global governance, cosmopolitanism and the like were also systematically introduced into China. Academic development in the world at large were closely followed by China’s academic community, and many results were achieved by applying the theoretical paradigms and standard methodologies of international relations. In this process, the study of international relations theories in China attracted more attention, with its independent consciousness constantly on the rise. Chinese experience and Chinese wisdom became an important part in theoretical research. Scholars also began to use Chinese experience to verify Western theories while integrating more and more Chinese perspectives and ideas.6Qin Yaqing, “Study of International Relations Theory in China: Progress and Problems,” World Economics and Politics, No.11, 2008, p.17.Dialogue and exchanges between international studies communities of China and Western countries were frequent, with gaps in their research gradually narrowed. However, original research based on independent creative thinking was still far from sufficient.

After the 18th CPC National Congress, China’s international relations

studies have ushered in a new era of self-improvement and independent thinking. As the development of socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a new era in which the country is getting stronger, China has constantly displayed its image as a responsible major country in the international arena. China is now confronted with great changes unseen in a century and is shouldering the historical mission of great national rejuvenation. China’s international relations studies, through long-term accumulation and digestion of new material, have been based on local traditions and national conditions, faced squarely the political realities of the world, and shown the courage of theoretical self-confidence, self-improvement and innovation. They have made creative improvements to foreign theories and methods, and summarized, refined and theoretically upgraded important Chinese diplomatic practices and experiences. On the basis of systematically grasping and subsuming the theoretical paradigms, research approaches and methodologies of Western international relations studies, Chinese scholars, with Chinese cultural concepts and historical experience, have broken the paradigmatic shackles of international relations studies and the monopoly of Western discourse, and sped up the construction of international relations theories with Chinese characteristics. Many valuable achievements have been made, such as the relational theory and the social evolution theory of international politics, the moral realist theory, the theory of symbiotic international society, etc. New diplomatic concepts, such as major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics, building a community with a shared future for mankind, the Belt and Road Initiative, partnerships rather than alliances, global governance featuring extensive consultation, joint contribution and shared benefits, and a new type of international relations, all symbolize an enhancement of independent disciplinary consciousness of China’s international relations studies.7Qin Yaqing, International Relations Theory: Reflection and Reconstruction, Peking University Press, 2012, p.158.This is a sign of the new era of independent innovative thinking based on increasing national self-confidence and self-improvement.

Experience and Deficiencies

Reviewing and summarizing the course of development in the past 70 years, China’s disciplinary system of international relations has been constantly improving, the research cadre has kept expanding, and the research level and innovative capabilities have been continuously on the rise. International relations studies in China has yielded fruitful achievements and accumulated much useful experience from its theoretical and ideological deliberations as well as from its developments in methodology.

First, meeting the major strategic and practical needs of the times constitutes the basic driving force for theoretical innovation and development.Time is the mother of thought, and practice is the source of theory. Any competent theory is not merely a creation of thought, but also a reflection of the real world, a description and explanation of important social phenomena and behavior, permitting a possibility of prediction.8Liu Feng, “Dilemma, Progress and Prospects of Theoretical Research on International Relations,” Foreign Affairs Review, No.1, 2017, p.27.All valuable academic research should also reflect and cherish reality and be conducive to solving practical problems. Only by seriously studying and solving urgent problems of the times and responding to realistic needs, can we truly grasp the law of historical development and promote theoretical innovation. The progress made in China’s international relations theory is closely related to the world situation in various periods, the relationship between China and the world, and the development and changes in China’s diplomatic practices. In view of highly practical topics such as the assessment of the international environment, the evaluation of China’s foreign strategy and the appraisal of China’s international status and role, theoretical research must resort extensively to competent theoretical results achieved in academic circles. It should not only make active use of advanced scientific theoretical tools to interpret the experience and the reality of China’s foreign relations, but also find new theoretical problems based on China’s practices, and put forward a new interpretation framework in order to promote new theoretical progress. As a result, the development of theoretical research and the solution of practical problems are mutually supportive. China’s international relations studies, while constantly improving its theoretical system and building up the discipline, have made an important contribution to China’s handling of relations with the outside world and served the major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics.

Second, the adherence to Chinese perspectives and practical experience constitutes the necessary foundation for independent theoretic innovation.After 70 years of development and construction, China has transformed from a revolutionary on the fringes of the international system to a responsible major country approaching the center of the world stage. This will inevitably bring about significant changes to the existing world order and to the international system. How China handles its relationship with the outside world and how China integrates itself into the international community have become important topics of common concern in academic and decision-making circles at home and abroad. The studies on this issue will promote the reinterpretation of classical propositions of traditional international relations theories, such as state sovereignty, cooperation and conflict between nation states, power transfer in the international system, and formation and transformation of the world order, and will further facilitate theoretical innovation in international relations studies. Since major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics in a new era provides new concepts and new expressions for international relations theories, the integration of Chinese ideology, culture, historical tradition and contemporary diplomatic practices into international relations studies and the building of a new theoretical paradigm and research approach in international relations will not only help innovate China’s research in international relations theories, but also serve as China’s contribution to the development of international relations theories.

Finally, paying more heed to international academic exchanges and mutual learning is an important condition of theoretical development.During the early days of the People’s Republic, China’s international relations studies were restricted by Cold-War confrontation and ideology, and therefore China’s international relations research perspectives, topics and methods were stereotyped. Since the reform and opening-up, Chinese scholars have gradually increased their independent awareness. Learning from their Western counterparts has promoted the standardization of China’s international relations studies, while exchanges and dialogues with Western academics have become an important factor in enhancing the explanatory power as well as the independence and innovative capability of China’s international relations research. In exchanges and mutual learning with Western academic circles, Chinese scholars have not lost their way by introducing Western theories into China’s international relations studies. Instead in their conscious reflection of foreign achievements, they have effectively identified the limits and deficiencies in Western theories,9Fan Weiwen, “The Features and Tendency of Chinese International Relations Theory in the New Century,” International Review, No.6, 2017, p.3.actively absorbing the experience of China’s diplomatic practices, and advocating the creation of innovative theories with Chinese characteristics, thus gradually leading to a thriving situation where multiple schools of thought develop and open exchanges with foreign academia can be conducted, which will serve China’s major-country diplomacy.

Remarkable progress has been made in the development of China’s international relations theory. However, in the face of the new situation in international relations, there are still many problems and deficiencies. The building of a disciplinary, academic, and discourse system in international relations studies is still not commensurate with China’s comprehensive national strength and international status. The ability to apply the Marxist viewpoint and methods to guide research work is far from sufficient. The academic originality of current research and the general quality of current internationalized high-level professions need to be improved. There are many experts but few masters in the field. And the academic evaluation system is not sophisticated enough.

First, there is a shortage of innovative thinking to meet pressing practical needs.With the ongoing transformation of the world order and international system and China’s rapidly rising strength and position, the international community expects effective and useful theoretical interpretation. However, the seasoned and sophisticated Chinese scholars who have received adequate cross-disciplinary training are small in numbers, making it difficult to carry out in-depth and systematic studies. Many studies therefore remain superficial or incoherent.10Sun Jisheng, “Chinese IR Theory Development since China’s Reform and Opening Up: Discourse, Practice, and Innovation,” World Economics and Politics, No.8, 2018, p.27.International relations studies in China have not yet produced creative high-level achievements that could independently respond to practical needs, especially since the originality in theory and the comprehension of the Chinese paradigm have been given short shrift.11Qin Yaqing, “Study of International Relations Theory in China: Progress and Problems,” p.21.This is not only related to the general lack of theoretical focus on the dramatic changes in the world’s international relations since the beginning of the new century,12Liu Feng, “Dilemma, Progress and Prospects of Theoretical Research on International Relations,” p.25.but has also been influenced by certain profit-driven and pragmatic tendencies in China’s studies of international relations.

Second, the theoretical system and research methods of China’s international relations studies are not sufficiently independent.Since the reform and opening-up, systematic introduction has given Western theories a dominant position in China’s international relations studies. In the early stage when Western theories were first introduced into China, China’s international relations studies were weak, and there was much indiscriminate imitation of American and European research results without any independent criticism. The research discourse, style and methodology of many Chinese scholars with US academic backgrounds has a distinct American flavor. Research topics driven by American scholars also became hot topics in Chinese academic circle. These research perspectives and approaches are obviously not in line with the needs of China’s international relations studies. Passively following or responding to research topics set by the American academic community has limited independent research in China’s international relations studies.

Third, the building of an independent and self-conscious academic community lags behind.China’s international relations research institutions and personnel are relatively scattered in an uneven geographical distribution. And the consciousness of the need for establishing national professional associations and team-building is weak. Limited by the overall academic training and knowledge structure, rational and serious academic debate and criticism within the academic community is insufficient.13Wang Yizhou, “Studies of International Relations Theories in the New Century: Some Thoughts and Suggestions,” World Economics and Politics, No.4, 1999, p.6.There exists a disconnection between theory and practice, and academic research is usually out of line with policy research or strategic needs. In addition, communication and dialogue with the international academic community is inadequate. Moreover, the lack of objective evaluation and reflection on the influence and effectiveness of current research will inevitably lead to low-level duplication of existing research, and impede the ability to develop sound theories and original academic results.

Path for Innovation and Development

Innovation plays the key role in the development of international relations theories, and it is a crying necessity for international studies at the present time. With the evolution of a new global configuration, promoting independent and innovative thinking in theoretical research of international relations is undoubtedly an important task if we are to speed up the construction of international relations theories with Chinese characteristics.

First, we should closely follow the major theoretical and practical needs in today’s international relations.Every major leap in human society and every major development in human civilization are intimately connected to a transformation in knowledge and the pioneering role of ideology.14Xi Jinping, “Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences,” People’s Daily, May 19, 2016, p.2.Important research achievements in international relations are often made by answering and solving major problems that face the international community. The world today is in the midst of major developments, radical changes and significant readjustments. The in-depth process of modernization and globalization has pushed the world to “great changes unseen in a century.” At the same time, while the global balance of power is shifting in favor of emerging major countries, some traditional powers in the West have been pursuing protectionist and unilateralist foreign policies, which has resulted in increasing risks and uncertainties in global governance. Faced with great changes in the world order and new challenges in global governance, and with the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and the grand practices of major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics, we badly need new ideas and new theories to summarize and guide our work. However, Western international relations studies have failed to offer convincing responses, creating a theoretical quandary. Since China works as a builder of world peace, a contributor of global development and a defender of the international order, Chinese scholars have the responsibility to provide a theoretical paradigm and an interpretive framework for understanding and responding to changes in the world order with the help of Chinese conceptual traditions and practical experience, push forward the independent and innovative development of China’s international relations theories, and promote the transformation of the current US-led international relations theories into a more open, inclusive and pluralistic global knowledge system.15“Development and Innovation of China’s International Relations Theories: Interview with Professor Liu Feng,” The Journal of International Studies, No.1, 2018, p.155.

Second, we should adhere to the problem-based approach in our research.Theoretical innovation, in essence, is the process of discovering, screening, studying and solving problems. In the face of the ever-changing international situation and emerging new issues and problems, if international relations studies fail to keep pace with the times, bring forth new ideas, raise issues and discover problems from a theoretical point of view, and study issues and solve problems with new ideas and new methods, then the existing theories will remain weak and feeble. Persisting in problem-oriented research, we must discard those closed and conservative concepts in disciplinary development, and put forward insights and incisive viewpoints in our response to questions, so as to chart a new path of our own. This is an important approach to promoting innovative development of international relations theories. Therefore, China’s international relations studies in the new era must focus on major issues facing the country and the world, engage in in-depth research of important theoretical and practical problems in major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics, actively explore vital issues related to the future of mankind, make scientific judgment of the underlying logic in the evolution of international relations, and put forward new ideas and plans that embody Chinese wisdom and values. In particular, we should strengthen the research and interpretation of new ideas and initiatives featuring original innovation such as “building a community with a shared future for mankind,” the Belt and Road Initiative and “upholding justice while pursuing shared interests,” by continuously generalizing new common experience and constructing new convincing theories.

Third, we should establish theoretical and academic confidence.Although Western mainstream theories in international relations still provide the dominant discourse, pluralism has become an important feature in the current exploration of international relations theories.16Qin Yaqing, “International Relations Theories Call for Pluralistic Development,” People’s Daily, February 11, 2015, p.3.As the world’s second largest economy and the largest developing country, China’s increasing overall national strength and international influence, its rich practices and great achievements and contributions in global governance, its profound historical experience and excellent traditional ideology and culture, and its professional reserves accumulated over years of disciplinary development, have all laid a solid foundation for the prosperity of China’s international relations studies. Now with China’s full participation in global affairs and its assumption of international responsibilities, the analysis and study of China’s diplomacy is becoming a hot topic worldwide. At present, however, we still need to improve the theoretical system in order to “tell the China story well,” and shift the focus of China’s international relations studies from exploring the influence of the external world on China to the impact of a rising China on the world. This not only provides space for the creation of different theoretical schools in China’s international relations studies, but also requires one to adhere to a scientific methodology and go beyond the dominant Western academic viewpoint and standards. We must eliminate the inferiority complex of blindly following foreign theoretical concepts, maintain an adequate theoretical consciousness and academic self-confidence, and work to form basic concepts, standardized terminology, principal laws and inherent logic of international relations studies with Chinese characteristics. Thus, a theoretical system conforming to the essence of the development of international relations can be built.

Fourth, we should strengthen the building of a professional academic community.The building of a high-level research team and academic community is very important for independent theoretical innovation. We should have a strong sense of academic community, strengthen the construction of a core team, create a highland for disciplinary development, and improve specific mechanisms in terms of academic team-building, academic association and academic evaluation. While guiding researchers to expand their frontier horizons, enhance their professional theoretical attainments, and sharpen their awareness of standardized methodology, attention should also be given to acquisition of multi-discipline knowledge and ability to integrate traditional Chinese culture, historical experience, and contemporary practices with theoretical and conceptual paradigms in international relations. In particular, we should attach great importance to cultivating disciplinary leaders and give full play to the important role of the leading talents. It is necessary to overcome the theoretical tendency of blindly worshiping the West, and avoid the interpretation of international reality and Chinese practices simply through Western lens. We should also avoid asserting the universality of existing theories by simply drawing on Chinese experience, in order to open up a new path for the independent innovation of China’s international relations theories.

Finally, we should encourage international academic exchanges and debate.International relations studies are rooted in a certain geo-cultural

context, and also embody a nation’s ideological heritage and practical experience. To construct the Chinese school of international relations studies into an open theoretical system, it is necessary to encourage international academic exchanges and debate, and promote disciplinary development with an inclusive mentality.17Qin Yaqing, “Constructing the Chinese School of International Relations Theories,” People’s Daily, February 15, 2016, p.14.The post-WWII international relations theories of the United States have developed into a so-called universal theoretical system through Washington’s long-term global hegemonic expansion.18Qin Yaqing, “Possibility and Inevitability of the Chinese School of International Relations Theories,” World Economics and Politics, No.3, 2006, p.9.However, in the face of in-depth changes and a major structural adjustment of the current world order and international system, Western international relations theories have fallen far short of making major theoretical breakthroughs which correspond to the needs of today’s world. On the other hand, the rise of China in the existing world order has become the most revolutionary experience in current world politics. It has been playing an increasingly important role in areas of global governance such as the environment and climate change, and making major contributions in emerging technologies such as 5G and artificial intelligence. The rapid growth of China’s comprehensive national strength has made it possible for the country’s international relations studies to contribute significantly to the evolving discipline of international relations. While the development of China has attracted more and more attention from the international community, the international academic community is also looking forward to academic contributions made by Chinese scholars.19“Development and Innovation of China’s International Relations Theories: Interview with Professor Liu Feng,” p.158.Academic development goes hand in hand with discussions and debates. China’s international relations studies should further refine the Chinese experience and wisdom in equal exchanges and rational debates with international academic circles, fully elaborate the Chinese view in a changing world, and contribute to global international relations studies with original theoretical discourse.

Conclusion

History shows that the time of great changes in the world is also the time of great development and innovation in international relations studies. As President Xi Jinping pointed out, this is the time for theories and the time that can produce theories. This is the time for thoughts and the time that can produce thoughts.20Xi Jinping, “Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences.”The unbalanced development in modernization and globalization of human society is constantly impacting the existing world order. A new round of scientific and technological revolution represented by AI accelerates the reshaping of the international system and triggers the transformation of global political and economic landscape. At the same time, China is currently undergoing extensive and profound social changes, and is carrying out grand and unique practical innovation. In a critical period when China is growing from a large country in the world to a major power, the promotion of major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics and the building of a community with a shared future for mankind both call for a more proactive role of international relations studies, which will also provide a broad vista for innovative thinking in international relations theories. In this regard, China’s international relations studies has to face the realistic requirements of major-country diplomacy and the historic issue of a changing world order. Scholars engaged in international relations studies should, with a high degree of disciplinary consciousness and theoretical self-confidence, actively participate in international academic dialogues and knowledge production. While critically studying the achievements of Western theories, they should proceed from Chinese perspectives, cultural traditions and contemporary practices, build up international relations studies with Chinese characteristics, and contribute wisdom and strength to the innovative development of China’s international relations studies and the improvement of global knowledge base on international relations.