焦然 徐娜 胡娟 宋周琳 胡佳青 饶玉春, 王跃星
植物类病变(lesion mimic)是指在非生物胁迫和生物胁迫都不存在的条件下,叶片和叶鞘甚至茎秆以及种子上自发产生大小和形状不一的病斑。这些病斑由过敏反应(hypersensitive response,HR)导致的细胞凋亡造成,过敏反应是植物和病原体不亲和互相作用后发生的一种细胞快速坏死的典型抗病反应,是植物自发的一种反应,反应中涉及细胞程序性死亡(programmed cell death,PCD)[1]。另外,绝大部分类病变突变体中的防御基因进行了表达,致使突变体对于一些植物病原体显示出较强的抗病性。因此,类病变突变体对于植株防卫应激反应的机制和PCD的研究有着重要的意义和价值[2]。
水稻类病变突变体的研究对于水稻的抗病机制、分子育种乃至于水稻的产量和品质提高都有着深远的影响。根据表型可以将水稻类病变突变体分为起始型和扩散型;根据遗传特点又可将突变体分为显性和隐性两种突变类型,不同突变类型表现出来的表型特征也不尽相同。随着研究的深入,在水稻中相当一部分的突变基因已经被成功克隆。其中spl7是类病变基因克隆的起始点,它是水稻中第一个被成功克隆的类病变突变基因。HSFA4是spl7所编码的热激蛋白转录因子,在细胞凋亡途径中起着负调控作用[3]。Spl7与玉米HSFb、番茄HSF8以及拟南芥HSF21、HSF1高度同源,这些突变体都在植株中对细胞的凋亡起调控作用并表现出类病斑的特征。突变体会启动相应的系统从而获得相关基因的表达,对植株的抗病作用有着一定影响。类病变的形成较为复杂,涉及信号分子、各类蛋白、自然环境等各种因素的影响。水稻类病变的挖掘较拟南芥、玉米滞后,并且水稻中已被克隆的突变基因并不是很多,需要发现和克隆新的突变体基因来展开进一步的研究[4]。
我们综述了前人对于水稻类病变突变体起源、种类和特征、发生的机理以及抗病机制等方面的研究进展,以期为进一步分析类病变突变体的各种机制奠定理论基础,并为水稻育种提供参考。
第一个植物类病变突变体是20世纪20年代美国科学家Emerson[5]报道的一个玉米类病变突变体。水稻中第一个类病变突变体sekiguchi lesion(sl)是日本科学家Sekiguchi在20世纪60年代中期发现的,该突变体是自然突变形成,在遗传特征上它是由单隐性基因所控制[6]。经研究,水稻类病变突变体中绝大多数是人工诱变产生的,极少一部分是自然形成。人工诱变的方法有很多,其中物理诱变的使用比较普遍,主要是用β射线、γ射线或快中子等对水稻进行诱变处理。化学诱变也是一种重要的方法,目前最常见的诱变试剂有N-甲基-N-亚硝基脲(N-methyl-N-nitrosourea,MNU)、环氧丁烷(butadienemonoxide)和乙基甲磺酸(ethyl methanesulfonate,EMS)。另外还有一种生物诱变的方法,它又称插入诱变,是通过在水稻中插入外源DNA或对水稻自身基因的表达进行干涉从而使植株出现类病变的症状。由于水稻类病变突变体有着不同的表型或特征,所以突变体的命名大多数是根据类病变特征如类病变发生的时间、形状、颜色或者导致植株抗病等来进行命名,如spl(spotted leaf)、cdr(cell death and resistance to the blast fungus)、blm(blast lesion mimic)、bl(brown leaf spot)、yls(yellow leaf spot)、fgl(faded green leaf)、zn(zebra necrosis)、lmi(lesion mimic initiation)等,其中以spl命名的类病变突变体最多;还有一种命名方式是依照Gramene网站上统一以lrd(lesion resembling disease)的形式命名[7]。
根据类病变发育进程可以分为全生育期类病变型(whole life lesion mimics,WLLM)如lrd32、lrd35、lrd40等;营养生长起始阶段类病变型(vegetative initiation lesion mimics,VILM)如lrd31、lrd41、lrd44等;生殖生长起始类病变型(reproductive initiation lesion mimics,RILM)如lrd27、lrd28、lrd39等。全生育期类病变从幼苗阶段一直到种子成熟阶段叶片始终都有明显病斑;营养生长起始阶段类病变是在播种后一到两个月之间出现病斑,到了生长阶段有的持续表现出病斑的特征,有的则不再表现;生殖生长起始类病变是在生长阶段后期才出现病斑,有些则是进入抽穗后出现病斑并且一直持续到种子成熟。另外根据水稻类病斑突变体性状对环境敏感程度的不同分为环境敏感型以及环境钝感型[8];根据类病变突变体的表型也可将其分为起始型(initiation class)以及扩散型(propagation class)。起始型就是植株没有受到病原物侵害就自发并且随机在叶片或者植株一些部位产生坏死斑,起始型的类病变存在发生起始位置不同以及病斑的大小和颜色不同的特点。扩散型又可称为蔓延型,即病斑会从起始发生部位向周围扩散甚至蔓延到整个植株[9]。叶片上或者叶鞘上出现的类病斑的颜色有褐色、红褐色、暗褐色、白色和橙黄色等,其中,褐色是最常见的类病斑颜色[10]。
从遗传特性来说,水稻类病变突变基因大多是单基因控制,少数是双基因控制,不论单基因或双基因控制也都分隐性和显性。目前水稻中类病变突变基因绝大多数都是单隐性控制。有100多个水稻类病变基因被鉴定和命名,部分突变体的来源、遗传特性、抗性、病斑表型列于表1。
水稻类病变突变体虽然对植株的抗病性有着提升的作用,但有的突变对植株也会有一定危害。例如突变体lms1的叶片在拔节期开始出现黄褐色斑点,病斑会随着植株的生长蔓延到整个叶片甚至茎上,等到植株长到抽穗期后就会出现衰老的症状,茎、叶以及穗明显干枯,并且快速衰亡[50],即我们通常所说的早衰。水稻叶片早衰在结构上明显的变化主要是从叶绿体开始,之后液泡崩裂,细胞器数量大量减少,接着由于存在溶解酶,细胞内不正常的酶活反应使细胞液电解质紊乱,导致气孔缩小、光合速率和蒸腾速率降低等,最终导致细胞死亡[51-52]。类病变与叶绿素含量有着很大关系,而水稻早衰又主要从叶绿体开始,因此叶片类病变和早衰也有着必然的关联。水稻类病变产生坏死病斑一般是从3~4叶期开始,在病斑出现后,一段时间内叶片上的病斑会慢慢扩展到整个叶片,导致叶片提前衰老,从而影响叶片的光合作用以至于妨碍植株正常的生长发育,并最终对稻米品质和产量造成负面的影响[53]。除此之外,研究还发现部分类病变甚至会导致水稻死亡[54]。李秀兰等[41]对C23进行遗传分析,发现一个新基因,并暂命名为spl29(t),该突变体抽穗期延长,株高降低,每穗粒数和有效分蘖数减少,千粒重以及结实率降低。spl1、spl2以及spl5出现类病变的同时伴随着植株发育迟缓,spl3和spl4则出现不育和产量下降[55]。
表1 水稻类病变突变体鉴定和命名Table 1.Identification and name of lesion mimic mutants in rice.
续表1:
4.1.1 水稻抗病基因突变或表达异常
水稻类病变的发生机理比较复杂,病变的发生和酶、信号分子、PCD等因素密切相关。水稻中的抗病基因表达异常或者发生突变就会导致防御相关基因表达异常,从而引起防御反应信号通路的紊乱,最终导致植株上细胞死亡而留下类病斑。如spl18的表型出现与T-DNA激活标签的插入相关,T-DNA激活标签的插入对插入位点周围基因的表达有增强作用,在插入的T-DNA激活标签下游约500 bp处有与烟草中诱导过敏反应的酰基转移酶序列相似基因OsATL,OsATL在野生型水稻中表达量较低,但是在spl18中表达水平很高[56],这是典型的水稻抗病基因表达异常导致类病变的发生。另外,水稻NLS1编码的CC-NB-LRR蛋白发生突变以后,突变体内的H2O2和水杨酸(salicylic acid,SA)大量积累,抗性相关基因的表达量大大提高,由于抗性相关基因的表达异常最后导致水稻叶鞘出现类病变[39]。
4.1.2 水稻细胞程序性死亡的失控
Zeng等[15]通过对spl11突变体的研究,证明spl11的蛋白质包含U-box和ARM(armadillo)重复结构域,它可以在酵母和哺乳动物系统中进行泛素化和蛋白质之间的相互作用。最后通过对氨基酸序列的对比表明,spl11与其他植物U-box-ARM蛋白的相似性主要局限于U-box和ARM重复区,并且在spl11突变基因中检测到单个碱基的替换,这导致spl11蛋白的翻译过早终止。另外,体外泛素化测定表明spl11蛋白具有依赖于完整U-box结构域的E3泛素连接酶活性的特点,所以植物细胞死亡和防御过程中泛素化系统起着重要的作用,也进一步表明自发形成的类病斑与失控的PCD有着很大的关系。
4.1.3 蛋白酶功能丧失或信号分子的参与
茉莉酸(JA)和绿叶挥发物(GLV)作为重要的信号分子,在防治昆虫害虫和病原体的植物防御反应中起着不同的作用。Tong等[57]通过对脂氢过氧化物裂解酶(HPL)在植物特异性防御反应中的作用的研究,发现如果HPL功能丧失,植株会发生类病变。研究结果还表明,OsHPL3通过影响JA、GLV和其他挥发物的水平,调控针对不同病原体的水稻特异性防御反应。除HPL之外,脂肪酸及其衍生物在植物的防御相关反应中也有着重要的作用。Jiang等[58]证明OsSSI2编码脂肪酸脱氢酶(FAD),FAD在水稻防御反应中同样起负调控的作用,在FAD功能缺失后会导致水稻叶片发生类病变并且延缓生长。还有糖代谢过程中尿苷二磷酸乙酰葡糖胺焦磷酸化酶(UAP1)的突变也会导致水稻叶片出现类病斑[59]。活性氧(ROS)在水稻类病变发生的过程中也起着很重要的作用[60],H2O2以及O2可能导致氧迸发,进而导致水稻PCD,产生类病变。研究也发现,在水稻病斑的周围都出现ROS的大量积聚,另外CAT、SOD、APX等活性氧相关代谢酶在突变体和野生型中有明显差异。部分水稻类病变发生的机制如图1。
图1 部分水稻类病变发生的机制Fig.1.Mechanism of some rice lesion mimic mutation.
4.1.4 温度和光照等环境因素
郝中娜等[61]用ɣ射线辐照诱变得到的类病变突变体,发现3叶期时,高温会导致这些突变体的病斑数量减少,随着水稻的生长,温度对类病斑的抑制作用会越来越小,在4叶期高温会使类病斑完全消失,随着水稻成熟病斑又会完全显现。表明水稻类病变产生的病斑受高温的影响,但受高温影响的时期是在成熟期之前,当植株抽穗期或者之后,病斑则不会再受到温度变化的影响。此外,OsLSD1基因的表达是光诱导或暗抑制,同时,OsLSD1对PCD起负调控作用,所以,在光照下会促进OsLSD1产生病斑[28]。王建军等[62]也用光诱导的方式获得水稻类病变突变体。因此,温度和光照等环境因素在类病变形成的过程中起着一定的作用。
根据目前的研究表明,大多数水稻类病变突变体都一定程度地表现出抗性增强。在已经鉴定的80余种突变体中,spl1、spl9、spl10、cdr1、cdr3等11个突变体表现出稻瘟病抗性增强;spl21、spl24、lmes1、hm197、hm83等12个突变体为白叶枯病抗性增强;Spl14、bl3、Lmr等19个突变体的稻瘟病抗性和白叶枯病抗性都增强;突变体lmm1则是稻瘟病抗性和纹枯病抗性同时增强;其中突变体spl2、spl3、spl4、spl6、spl7、ncr1没有表现出抗性增强,其抗性不变甚至降低[59]。
水稻类病变突变体除了表现出一定的抗病性,也会出现水稻防卫相关基因的组成性表达。胼胝质在植物生长发育过程中起到重要的调节作用,它的合成与分解可以帮助植株抵抗外来的生物或非生物胁迫[63]。水杨酸可以启动植物防御相关反应,是存在于各种植物中的信号分子[64],有些突变体会导致胼胝质的积累以及水稻中水杨酸含量升高,这些都会促使防御基因表达从而使抗病性增强[42]。PR1、PBZ1是和抗性相关的基因,它在cdr1、cdr2、cdr3突变体中表达水平很高,导致这些突变体对稻瘟病抗性增强[21]。水稻类病变发生机制及其对植株的影响总结如图2。
图2 水稻类病变发生的可能机制及其影响Fig.2.Possible mechanism of rice lesion mimic mutation and its impact.
研究人员使用T-DNA、转座子和反转座子插入诱变、图位克隆等方法克隆到许多水稻类病变的功能基因。此类基因有的编码一些功能蛋白,有的控制相关酶的活性,这些基因通过各种途径调控细胞的程序化死亡。部分已克隆的水稻类病变基因及其功能总结如表2。
植物类病变的发生与细胞程序化死亡、胼胝质和酚类化合物的积累以及过氧化物的合成有密切联系,复杂的环境因素也可能导致类病变的发生。植株对病原体的抗性与类病变的发生也有关联,有些突变体表现出对稻瘟病以及白叶枯病的抗性,与此同时突变基因影响水稻株高、穗长、每穗粒数、结实率。因此,类病变突变体基因的克隆和功能研究愈加重要,类病变发生的机制和分子机理也有待于更深的剖析,影响类病变表型的因素和类病变获得方法也需进一步扩展。
水稻类病变突变体普遍表现出对稻瘟病和白叶枯病抗性,但是稻瘟病以及白叶枯病的变异很快,所以如何利用类病变基因结合其他抗病基因,在提高水稻品种抗病的广谱和持久性同时保持产量和品质,聚合多种病原体的抗性,应该从那些具有广谱、持久抗性的突变基因进行挖掘或者从类似的模式植物的抗病基因入手,运用先进的分子生物学手段和转基因技术来挖掘这些突变基因,将突变基因结合其他优势位点应选育优良品种。
表2 部分水稻类病变基因及其功能Table 2.Genes and their functions of some lesion mimic.
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