On Robert Phillipson’s Theory of Linguistic Imperialism

Abstract： Robert Phillipsons theory of linguistic imperialism caused a worldwide study of endangered languages and language hegemony. This paper introduces and analyzes Phillipsons theory of Linguistic Imperialism， and argues that English should be viewed as lingua franca， which is an indispensable tool for human communication. English plays a positive role in international communication but linguistic imperialism exerts negative effects to other languages and cultures. The value of Phillipsons linguistic imperialism thesis is its enlightenment on English teaching content and teaching method for non-English-speaking countries.

注：本文系成都師范学院2014年度科研项目“罗伯特菲利普森语言帝国主义学说研究”研究成果，项目编号为CS14SB10。

Ⅰ. Introduction

In the book Linguistic Imperialism （1992） written by Robert Phillipson， an English language teaching methodology lecturer in Roskilde university of Denmark， Definition， concept， history origin and development of “Linguistic Imperialism phenomenon” were raised and analyzed， and language policy analysis， suggestions for English teaching were offered as well. The book is divided into ten chapters. The first chapter introduces background information， main idea and structure of this book. In chapter two， the author classifies the countries in which English as the first language as core English-speaking countries， and those in which English as a second foreign language as periphery-English countries. Chapter three illuminates terminology， which lays a theoretical foundation for the book. In chapter four， five and six， deep analysis of the formation of linguistic imperialism is offered. Chapter seven criticizes the five widely accepted tenets and points out that they have been effective in maintaining the privileged position of English and the core English-speaking countries dominance to periphery-English countries. In chapter eight， Phillipson shifts to ELT action and indicates the harms of separating ELT and society. Chapter nine records some arguments in linguistic imperialist discourse. And in the last chapter， the author raises relevant suggestions for ELT.

Ⅱ. Definition and impact of linguistic imperialism

Phillipson writes the book in order to explore the contemporary phenomenon of English as a world language and set out to analyze how the language became so dominant and why. “Linguistic imperialism” is closely related to the concept of “imperialism”. In chapter three， the author mentions it as “a cautionary word on terminology” （1992： 38）， and tries to avoid its ideological implication， nevertheless， the academic concept cannot cover up its ideological implication. “Linguistic imperialism is that the dominance of English is asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages.” （1992： 47） According to the authors explanation， the structural inequalities refer broadly to material properties， such as institutions， financial allocations. And cultural inequalities refer to immaterial or ideological properties， including attitudes， pedagogic principles.

English linguistic imperialism is one example of linguicism and seen as a sub-type of linguicism.

A.The impact to non-English-speaking countries culture and education.

English linguistic imperialism has serious impacts on other languages and cultures. Relying on its powerful position and advantages， English language has realized its “cultural ruling”. Powerful English-speaking countries carry out cultural hegemony based on the language and political advantages through English languages spreading. At first， Phillipson uses the term “linguistic imperialism” to study ELT， ELT policies and strategies in non-English-speaking countries which are greatly affected by British Council， an institution sponsored by the British government. He maintains that the export of English language is everywhere， and it has become a symbol of development and prosperity， and ELT has been a form of international activity. Great powers use ELT as a tool of eliminating problems caused by language diversity， and strengthen the predominant English language， while this sort of strengthening is based on sacrificing local languages in those weaker countries. English has become the means for western countries acquiring dominance in economy and politics. Linguistic imperialism is some languages one-way learning catalyst for the implant of information and knowledge from great powers to weaker nations， at the cost of sacrificing most languages. Although some scholars raise doubts on the view that British and American language policies and consciously promoting English hegemony lead to English linguistic imperialism， they still affirm that language imperialism is mandatory， which combines cultural imperialism and new colonialism， forming a new stage of imperialism. The spreading of English has greatly improved its status and its impact has expanded from the third world countries to all non-English-speaking countries.

In international affairs， English is becoming more and more exclusive than other languages. And even in many non-English-speaking countries domestic affairs and daily life， English also begins to oppress the local languages. Englishs wide spread and use has led to some languages increasingly narrowed usage， even on the brink of extinction， and has played a significant role in the growth of international trade， the development of multinational companies， the increasing of the science and technology exchange and communication networks expansion. The effects of strengthening， for other regional languages and small language， or even replaced. The continuing spread is not balanced in various regions， while the main and minority languages are confronting more intense competition. Most immigrants migrate to English language-using countries or regions， a few minority languages are assimilated by English. There are an increasing number of chances to use English in communication with the wide spread of it， more and more people are learning and using English. A large number of foreign students are studying in English-speaking countries with developed economy and culture， thus their study and life force them to communicate in English， which increases the spread of English. The continuous strengthening influence of English to the society makes the companies and institutions take English ability as the prerequisite for employment and promotion， which ensures candidates who have certain English language ability to get more opportunities. Therefore， the results are stimulation to learn English all over the world. In fact， it is based on the core English-speaking countries dominance and controlling to surrounding countries.

B.The economic benefits of linguistic imperialism.

After World WarⅡ， the original colonies gained independence， but the existing world order and the American powerful economic and military strength continue to maintain and expand the influence of English in these countries. Professor Phillipson （2009） holds that language linguistic imperialism does not seem to have an end in todays world， but rather has entered a new imperialism in which language policies are driven by the interests of the enterprise for the maintenance of hegemony of English， and its aim is to maintain American and British acquiring economic benefits through the language inequality and advantage. During this period， the form of linguistic imperialism is no longer the occupying colonial territory， but maintaining and expanding its influence throughout the world in the trend of globalization.

Linguistic imperialism is the most active in the field of the education in non-English-speaking countries， which accounts for the material and capitals flowing into core English-speaking countries due to cultural inequality. A phenomenon is that non-English-speaking countries investment in language research is mostly used to fund English education and research. In the field of foreign languages teaching， English has absolute advantages and privileges. Another one is that individuals spend more money in learning English， which makes English education a big industry in market. Take China as an example， the annual output value has been up to billions yuan， which takes one percent of the gross national product （GNP）. Learners are up to hundreds of millions （Zhu Luzi， Yang Aixiang， 2004：29）.According to a survey conducted by Tang Yonglin and Xie Yang （2005）， reporters of China Youth Daily， 67.38% of respondents said they spent more than one hundred yuan in preparation for CET-4 and CET-6， even 18.53% of interviewees spent more than one thousand yuan. The English fever makes all kinds of English tests sponsor， overseas examination institutions and training organizations gain most benefits. Tests like TOEFL （Test of English as a Foreign Language）， GRE （the graduate record examination）， GMAT （Graduate Management Admission Test）， IELTS （International English Language Testing System） are charging high registration fee. A wide range of English language professionals and learners make English a growing industry.

By observing carefully the role of the organizations in the globalization of English we can find that， in the new phase of imperialism， the main driving force of languages international communication and expansion is business interests， an important feature of it is the diversity of actors. All kinds of non-governmental organizations， enterprises and academic institutions have become the main power in spreading English. While there is an implicit monolingual social ideology when they spread English， the spread of English often has devastating consequences on the development of the local language.

Ⅲ. The countermeasures of foreign language teaching

In chapter eight， Phillipson shifts to ELT action and indicates the harms of separating ELT and society. And in the last chapter， he raises relevant suggestions for ELT. Phillipson （1997：46） deems that because we live in a world in which language inequality exists， facing up to the English language imperialism can let us see more clearly the limitations of ELT， and non-English-speaking countries should take appropriate countermeasures to cope with linguistic imperialism to maintain their own national culture and language. Language is a symbol of national identity or group， thus the protection of national language is to safeguard national characteristics. The culture of a nation contains all its history from the origin， survival， development and expansion， so if the culture of a nation has disappeared， the people no longer exists. English linguistic imperialism strongly brings British and American culture to the world， so the cultural impact to the second language learners native language makes them tend to forget their own national culture and dilute their national consciousness， which encourages mono-culturalism objectively. Cultural convergence and weak cultures being assimilated phenomenon are not conducive to the development of world civilization. On the contrary， the long-term advocated Multicultural system greatly promotes the progress of world culture. Therefore， non-English-speaking countries should eliminate the negative impact of linguistic imperialism in the process of Globalization and pay attention to the cultural diversity and the participation of learners native language culture.

English has now become the most commonly used language in the world. As a lingua franca， English is not only the carrier of British and American culture， but also should become the carrier of multi-culture. English as a communication tool to obtain information can be used to introduce and disseminate national culture by language learners and users. After study of current situation in Asia， Andy Kirkpatrick （2004） pointed out that： Their using of English is not necessary to reflect the British and American cultural value， because English is no longer a colonial language， but for mutual exchanges between Asians and people in the world. English teaching has been experiencing paradigms changes： from TEFL （Teaching English as a foreign language）/ TESL （Teaching English as second language） to TEIL （Teaching English as an International Language）， therefore， in foreign language teaching， selection of in the teaching content， teaching objectives， teaching methods and other aspects of the use should reconsider English as an international language. For instance， in the correction of the teaching goal， the ultimate goal should not be “at or near native language level” which was the pursuit of the past. In the teaching syllabus and teaching material selection， appropriate consideration of learners native culture and world cultural diversity should be enhanced in order to avoid simplification of culture in foreign language teaching， because it can weaken the learners “native language and mother tongue” s cultural competence， the ability to criticize and inherit， and hinder the development of the multi-polarization of languages， which are the main threat of the disappearance of many local languages in the world.

English is a tool for understanding the target language culture， and also for introducing and spreading learners and users national culture in order to achieve cross-cultural communication in the true sense. Of course， language and culture are as close as lips and teeth. So using a language to interpret another culture can only stay in surface， the ultimate goal should be a place for the learners national language in international communication， because every culture has its unique form of civilization， and various forms are expressed through its language， such as arts， music， literature， folk custom， political rule， basic human rights， interpersonal and intergroup communication， etc.

Ⅳ. Conclusion

When it comes to Phillipsons theory of linguistic imperialism， a thought-provoking part of it is about the separation of ELT and society in developing or underdeveloped countries， which is also the value of his theory of linguistic imperialism. The deep meaning which Phillipson wants to express is that the core English-speaking countries are opinionated in the spread of English teaching method but ignore other countries specific conditions and seek supremacy over all others， which has a sense of hegemony. In fact， British and American teaching methods do not have universal nature of the world and are not suitable for every country. Under the wave of economic globalization， learning a different language is the useful means for people in different regions to strengthen communication and understanding. But in terms of Phillipsons view of linguistic imperialism， we also should fully realize the potential intentions and long-term effects of British and American great powers spreading their culture and social values through English language teaching and learning. The English education workers should take language nature as the starting point and keep in mind that English teaching cannot be separated from their own culture， and ELT should be rooted in local society.

作者簡介

曾杰，讲师，硕士，成都师范学院外国语学院教师，主要研究方向为英美文化及英语教学。