学问来回于新旧之间

□　张楚廷 彭道林



学问来回于新旧之间

□张楚廷 彭道林

摘要:新与旧，主要是时间概念。当与物相连时，才构成新物与旧物的实体；当与人相连时，才构成意义与价值，才构成历史。并非凡新皆好，亦非凡旧皆好。常态、思维、趋势等，并非新的就一定好。学问更是如此，学问历久弥新才是更有学术含量的，学问在批判与继承中发展。人们守旧、念旧、怀旧，是一种情怀。人之成其为人，就是因为有历史感，有历史担当。我们所需要的，是良性循环的富有活力的常态，是娴熟运用辩证法的思维，是繁荣发展的趋势。论辩证法，都得回到古中国和古希腊去寻找智慧，都得学习亚里士多德和黑格尔，学习他们古老的学问。大学也是古老的好，中国是北京大学、天津大学、上海交大好；美国是哈佛、耶鲁好，法国是巴黎大学好；英国是牛津、剑桥好。在大学，古老意味着文化的积淀与厚重。

关键词：新旧与时间；怀旧与历史；古老与厚重

政治人物使用的术语有他们特定的角度，这是可以理解的。正如学术人员使用自己的术语时也有特定的视角一样。最好能相互理解。即使视角不同也无妨，毕竟各自的使命是不相同的。相同的是都有各自的社会责任。

现围绕“新常态、新思维、新趋势”的主题，做一些探讨。

首先我想指出，“新”只是一个时间概念，相对于“旧”。我猜测这些概念的提出者关注的是“优秀与否”，希望高等教育能稳定在一个良好的常态下，有比较先进的思维，并出现良性发展的趋势。也本着这样的意愿，对“三新”作一点评论。

一、学问之新旧

每一门学问都有自己的历史。论文学，就有古典文学、近代文学、现代文学、当代文学。自然科学没有这样严格的年代划分。但物理学、天文学都有各自的历史。由思辨到实证，这是一个变化。但有了实证之后，思辨仍不可少。这一类自然科学的历史是由其领域里的不断发现来写明的。哲学、数学自有它们特殊的历史。它们的历史最能直接反映人类的智慧状况。哲学史、数学史都更为悠长。

如果仅从新旧来看待历史，意义似乎不大。仅计新旧或年份，就够了吗？这跟划分新衣裳、旧衣裳不一样简单吗？跟划分少年与老年不也差不多吗？

从新与旧来划分学问价值的大小有意义吗？现代数学的价值可能更高？现代文学的价值一定比古典文学的价值更高吗？《红楼梦》、《水浒传》、《三国演义》这样的巨著及其价值，今日有文学著作堪与之相比吗？新文学一定比旧文学价值高吗？还有《离骚》、《荷马史诗》，至今其价值仍为世人所公认。看来自然科学与人文科学的价值判断及其历史意义也是有区别的。自然科学勇往直前，推陈出新；人文科学不断回望，留连忘返。可是，即使是自然科学，也站在前人的肩上，也是从故人的“旧”那里再获得智慧的。故而，不宜笼统使用新旧来区分学问、见识和思维。

工程技术上的新与旧可能更有必要。电脑一代之后，有了二代、三代，还有了四代、五代。它们不断地过时了，又不断地更新着。我曾问一位科学院院士，“是爱迪生更伟大，还是牛顿更伟大？”答：“都伟大。”他回避了那个“更”字。几天之后他回答我说，“当然是牛顿更伟大”。这里的区分也不是用“新”与“旧”可简单区分的。区别其意义的是，一个是发明，一个是发现。发现的东西既持久起作用，又广泛地起作用。

我接着又问：“是牛顿更伟大还是亚里士多德更伟大？”此时院士不再回避，即答：“亚里士多德。”我们没再叙及理由，但尺度都心知肚明：牛顿发现的是自然哲学，亚里士多德是哲学。两者意义的普遍性有很大的差别。然而，亚里士多德的学问更古老，更“旧”，却更有价值。

这些例子所说明的更一般的问题是文、理、工的关系。人们几乎都认识到，没有一流的文（含文、史、哲），便没有一流的理；没有一流的理，便没有一流的工（含工程技术之类）。这些关系是轻重关系、学术价值关系、并非先后关系，亦非新旧关系。

总的来说，新旧关系对形而下知识尚有其一定意义，越到形而上，意义就越小了。在人文科学领域里，甚至越古老的东西，越香喷喷的，意义越大，影响越深远。

二、关于“新思维”

什么是“新思维”呢？没见过进一步的说明，就只好从字面上去看了。它可能是相对于旧思维的吧。可是，旧思维又是什么呢？这新旧思维的界限在哪里呢？

这里的思维是指内容，还是指方法呢？估计是偏向于方法的。因为如果就内容而言，那实在太庞杂了，很难一一涉及。即便涉及二三又怎么样呢？这样，思维的新旧之分应是思维方法的新旧之分了。那么这种方法之分体现在哪些方面呢？什么方法新，什么方法旧呢？这里无非是指思想方法，我们已做过讨论，方法论较之观念是更重要的。但是某些思想方法出现时间的迟早对其价值有什么影响吗？

如果说到思想方法，恐怕无人能否认辨证思维方法的无与伦比的地位。而对于辩证方法发展的比较完整的论说，恩格斯做出了十分精妙的描述。恩格斯说，“理论思维无非是才能方面的一种生来就有的素质。这种才能需要发展和培养，而为了进行这种培养，除了学习以往的哲学，直到现在还没有别的办法”[1]（P284）。

“以往的哲学”，以往的辩证法，在哪里呢？“辩证法直到今天也只有两位思想家曾做过比较仔细的研究。这就是亚里士多德和黑格尔”[1]（P284）。这两位之中，前者已距我们两千多年了，新乎？旧乎？黑格尔以其著作《小逻辑》为标记，距我们亦已200年以上了（其初版出现在1892年）。都很“旧”了吧。可是，恩格斯认为他们的哲学仍很“新”，而且，除了学习这些“旧”的哲学，“还没有别的办法”。

恩格斯还特别强调了那两位思想家的哲学对于自然科学研究家们的重大意义。如果自然研究家要“找到光明”，实现“从形而上学的思维到辩证思维的反转”；“如果理论自然研究家愿意在辩证哲学的历史存在的形态上来较仔细地研究这一哲学，那么上述过程可以大大缩短。在这些形态中，有两种形态对现代的自然科学格外有益”[1]（P286）。

“第一种是希腊哲学……理论自然科学要想追溯它的今天的各种原理的形成史和发展史，也不得不回到希腊人那里去。”

“辩证法的第二个形态恰好离德国的自然研究家最近，这就是从康德到黑格尔的古典哲学。”[1]（P287-288）19世纪以来，德国人虔诚地学习古希腊，并建立和发展了自己的哲学，影响和决定了德意志民族的全面繁荣。恩格斯本人亦看到了自己祖国的繁荣发展，并深知哲学对他的民族有多么重要。在德国的十九世纪，古希腊哲学似乎找到了它的第二故乡。

我们大段地引用了恩格斯的论述，为的是说明，新与旧对于学术的价值、哲学的价值，没多大意义。今天的新人都需要从亚里士多德和黑格尔那里寻找智慧；今天的“新思维”是不可能完全不回到“旧思维”那里而能有重大作为的。

三、守旧，念旧，一种情怀

并非一切是旧的好，亦非一切新的好。推陈出新是对艺术而言的。艺术不能总是那么几个样子。20世纪60至70年代那段时间里，艺术几乎泯灭了，就因为多样性消失了，只剩下“语录”歌和样板戏了，八亿人八个样板戏，每一亿人只有一个“戏”。多样性是艺术的生命，1976年之后，艺术才恢复生机，才多种多样，迅速出现了繁花似锦的局面。

但是，巴赫以来的古典音乐仍具有崇高的地位，欧洲的科学家们盛赞古典音乐，并认为这种古典开启了他们智慧的天窗。这可谓是守旧、念旧、怀旧的经典一例。一般而言，在较为远古的东西中，往往深藏着人类的深情厚意、真情盛意和无限智慧。怀旧本就是人类历史感的表现之一。人生活在未来，是因为人生活在历史中。喜新厌旧看似只是对爱情的不忠，亦乃对历史的不诚。由此，孝才成为人的第一美德，不忘先祖，不忘历史，只有在深情地景仰和缅怀“旧”的时候，人才成其为人。

“新常态”本身可能包含一个悖论。常者，常常也，不变也。与常数相对应的是变数。常必“旧”，新很难在瞬间成为常。常态已不新，新还不是常。

新是相对于旧的。此时新，彼时可能旧了。问题只在于，什么新才是有意义的？那种有普遍和深远意义的“新”留下的“旧”才可能成为人们所怀念的“旧”。

蔡元培时期的北大之新成为今天人们怀念的“旧”；梅贻琦留下的当年清华之新，亦成为今天人们怀念的“旧”。“新”与“旧”只在人们赋予其某种内涵时才有意义。它们不是一个单纯的时间概念。同样，新趋势究竟怎么样，也待观察；是前进，还是倒退的趋势呢？倒退的“新”有何意义？当人们用自己今日足够的努力作用于当下的时候，未来的趋势才可能如人们之所愿。故而，新趋势之新亦非一个纯时间概念。

历史也有不堪回首的时段。有些伤痛抚平起来还十分艰难，新的局面颇不易打开。时代留下的印记是由人们的足迹刻画出来的。我们盼望新的东西很美好，盼望开创新局面，常常需要付出艰辛，并避免走不必要的弯路。由此，在时间里嵌上了我们的寄托和汗水，从而在新局面里留下“旧”，也留下了我们能够和愿意在明天怀念的“旧”。

实际上，站在当下的人，需要十分清醒地意识到，今日之新，明日就会成为“旧”，自觉其新必自觉其旧；让昨日之旧成为后日可铭记的历史，乃至成为永恒。

“新”在备受我们关注的时候，它被赋予难忘记忆的可能性会更大。为新而付出，就是为旧而添彩。这样，在未来必然出现的怀旧中，还能看到昔日的色彩斑斓。

现在，有些人爱说创新。其实，凡创造必新，但新不一定是创造。还有价值判断问题。在这里，毫无价值的新，不在创造之列。这同样表明，仅具有时间性的新确实是没有意义的。

今日之新是明日之旧；昨日之新是今日之旧；前年之新是去年之旧；反之，今年之旧是去年之新；去年之旧是前年之新。这个新，一直可以倒推过去；顺此，这个世纪的旧是上个世纪的新；这个千年的旧是前一个一千年的新……顺次追溯，有一个原初的新吗？

有意义、有价值的新，我们才愿意称之为创造。那种原初的、最初的创造，我们就可以称之为原创了。对于原创，就不再有往前追溯的问题了。去年发生的原创是原创，千年前发生的原创也是原创。很旧很旧的原创还是原创。在这里，“新”同样不是问题的实质。

当然，由于立足点不同，不同的人会有不同的意义判断或价值判断。但仍然还有许多共同之处。谁不认为爱因斯坦的成就具有原创性？谁不认为牛顿的成就在他那个时代具有原创性？还有许多杰出的哲学家、数学家、物理学家都做出了原创性的贡献。总之，实质上，不在于求新，也不是创新，而是创造。其中，最重要的还是原创。

四、学术上，人们更喜欢古色古香

学问是人做出来的，却是在一定的时空里做出来的。人和学问离不开时间。而且，时间离开了人的活动，它就是一个空无。有了人的活动，且卓有成效，时间就变得实了，时间的价值才显现出来了。这也是天人合一。上天给了人以时间，人在上天赋予的时间里有了作为，共同做出了创造。这样，属于人的时间就被叫做历史了。

历史学家在所有学问家中有特别值得敬重的地方，因为他们有特别的贡献。历史学家是天然的怀旧论者，他们站在“新”的今天，却总是回望着“旧”的昨天。

我们也看看恩格斯是怎样论述人与历史的关系的。“随同人，我们进入了历史。动物也有一部历史……但是这部历史对于它们来说是被创造出来的。”[1]（P274）人则是自己创造了历史。

恩格斯还描述了人出现的大致过程。“在最初的动物中，主要由于进一步的分化而发展出了动物的无数的纲、目、科、属、种，最后发展出神经系统获得最充分发展的那种形态，即脊椎动物的形态，而在脊椎动物中，最后又发展出这样一种脊椎动物，在它身上自然界获得了自我意识，这就是人。”[1]（P273）人从大自然获得了意识，大自然也从人身上获得了意识。

如果恩格斯看到了现代考古学的发现，并由化石而知人类已有382万年以上的历史，他会有更多的论述。在人类的382万年的历史中，直到最近的五千年，人类才有了可记下历史的文字。但是，人类以其无限的智慧，不仅知晓了自己的历史，还探索了海洋史、冰川史、地球史、太阳史，直到宇宙史。人类为自己写下历史的同时，也为天地日月写下历史，且由此而更丰富了自身的历史。

人类把怀旧的情感化为了修史的行为。一谈到修史，中国人不能不想到司马迁。他可能是人类怀旧情结的一位杰出代表。

人们都喜欢古色古香的东西，越古的古董，越价值连城，正如酒越陈越香一样。人们也普遍喜欢收藏，虽然他们不一定意识到了，但那就是在收藏历史，记载历史。古庙有更多的人愿意去朝拜，古画有更多的人去欣赏，古典音乐有更多的人愿意聆听，古城必有更多的人想去游览，研修古典文学的人更受尊敬，对哲学史更有研究的人必是哲学修养更深的哲学家，他们往往同时是哲学史家。

古老也不只是一个时间概念。人们喜欢古老的大学，不只是因为它历史悠长，而是因为它有了更多的积淀，它更加厚重。美国人向往哈佛、耶鲁，它们正是美国最古老的大学，比美国国家的历史还悠长；法国人最喜欢巴黎大学，英国人最喜欢牛津、剑桥，中国人最喜欢北大、武大、天津大学，它们都是各自国家最古老的大学。大学里的人赋予了这种古老以特别的内涵，在古老的时空中留下了浓墨重彩。

我们并不需要在厚古薄今和厚今薄古之间作出选择。厚古是为了更看重今日，使得今日更对得起它的昨日。大学最奇特的人类作用，恰在于它能最有效地把昨日和明日联系起来，把历史和未来连接起来。其中，古老的大学尤其能起到这种作用。

一些新兴的大学也可取得特别的成功，那就需要他们能在较短的时间里，把古老与现代连接起来。

五、学问是来回于新旧之间的

我本人是特别怀旧的。我相信人同此心，人人都有这种特别的情感。所以我一点也不忌讳说自己。

首先就是怀念先祖，怀念父母，我的父母若健在，今年是115岁了。遗憾的是上天给予的实在太有限。

我怀念我的老师赵孝恭、张国魂、李盛华、杨少岩……我记得他们的名字，还记得他们远去的身影。2013年是李盛华老师的百年诞辰，我还举行了一个小型纪念会。如果此时我还在职，这个纪念会的规模应该大得多。本应大得多，他有卓越的才能和贡献。但是，并非所有人都很清楚相关历史。

1988年，我们准备纪念学校35周年校庆，瞬间就有历史提醒我：我们的建校时间不是1953年，而是1938年——在抗战烽火连天之时，一些有识之士已想到了抗战胜利后的国家建设，于抗战全面爆发的次年在湖南蓝田建立了“国立师范学院”，后世的人，都亲切地称之为“国师”。我的怀旧情结，我的良心，让我把1988年的校庆定为50周年。

在我任校长之初，学校还没有博士学位授予权，但只有几年的功夫，我们就有了。而最初的两个博士学位授予点之一正是历史学。这与前任校长林增平教授的学术贡献直接相关。

我在新建的图书馆大厅，策划和组织了大型壁雕《长河》，用形象刻下了我们民族5000年的文明史。在图书馆的正前方，修起了四座古代伟大学人的雕像，又在文学院大楼前方为学校史上世界级的汉学家杨树达修建了雕像。我自然地虔诚地对待历史，我也欣慰自己在历史面前的一片丹心。

我还策划和组织写出了学校的第一部校史。这是由杨甫生主编的。我的怀旧之情让我把心放在了自己的大学身上，并由此而把心放在了长江黄河，放在了我们伟大民族身上。

我深切地体会到学问是来回于新旧之间的。这个“来回”就是连接，做学问的人的连接，做学问的人的来回。这种来回未必不可以是碰撞。碰撞出火花，碰撞出智慧。这就是批判与继承的关系，它们是学术生命的两翼，缺一就不可能飞翔。

在我看来，正常情况下，人人怀旧；同样，在正常情况下，越有文化的人，越是怀旧。他有更多的“旧”可以怀之，念之，守之。越是自觉其人的人，亦必越富有历史感。

同时越是尊重历史的人，越能善待今天；越是怀旧的人，越追求今日之新。兴新的发展，兴新的成就。当然，越有历史感的人，越有现实感；而真正的现实主义者，则必是传统主义者，又是理想主义者。

我想，在此文的最后可归纳一下了。

新旧本身都只有时间的意义，只有在人进入其中时，才有了人世间的意义。

人们既不必喜新厌旧，也不必喜旧厌新。不是要在两者之间只取其一，而是结成一条粗长的纽带，把历史与未来、把新与旧牢牢地连接起来。由此就可以阔步前进。

我一点也不怀疑提出“新常态、新思维、新趋势”的学人的良好愿望。我行此文也不会否认“新”。虽然今日无论多么新的东西亦必然在明日变旧。故“新”仍值得特别关注。我们毕竟是立足于今日，毕竟想做好今日。我只是补充说：需要同时关注“旧”，关注历史，并特别注意把新旧连接起来，把传统与未来连接起来。

附带指出，可能有补充性连接、纠正性链接，甚至还可能有否定性连接，但都是有意义的连接。在很大程度上，学人和大学，就是在做着不同性质的连接工作。

我想再一次说明，“新常态、新思维、新趋势”的实质性含义是，我们盼望中国的高等教育能进入一个良性运行的常态；能有一个锐意改革的思维，能给我们带来智慧的思维；并且，由此而使我们的高等教育事业呈现出繁荣发展的趋势。生活在这个领域里的我们，也就从自己做起了。

参考文献

[1][德]马克思,恩格斯.马克思恩格斯选集(第4卷)[M].北京:人民出版社,1995.

Knowledge Back and Forth between the Old and the New

ZHANG Chu-ting

Abstract:The old and new, mainly are the concepts of time. When they are connected to the object, they constitute the new and old entities jointly; when they are connected to the people, they form the meaning and value, even the history. Not the new things are all good, and not the old things are all good too. For example, the normalcy, thinking, trends and so on, are not a new one must be good. On knowledge is even more so. Only through long time can knowledge become more academic, and knowledge is developed in the criticism and inheritance. The sense and responsibility of history make the human being a real one. We need the virtuous cycle of dynamic norm, being able to skillfully use dialectical thinking and the development trend of prosperity. For dialectics, we should go back to the ancient China and ancient Greece to seek wisdom, to learn from Aristotle and Hegel, and to learn their ancient knowledge. And for a university, the old is better than the new. For example, there are Peking University, Tianjin University and Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China; Harvard University and Yale University in the United States; in France; University of Oxford and University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom. In a university, the old means that the accumulation and profundity of culture. Professor Pan Maoyuan, Chinese eminent educator, the founding father of Chinese higher educational research, is a legend. He is now over 95 years old and has been enjoying engaging in teaching for over 80 years. In his academic personality two traits are notable and critical to his success. One is his “Cheng” (诚, loyalty, honesty, sincerity), the other is his “can-do” spirit. These characteristics are manifested in three aspects through his strong will and life experiences as a diligent student, a happy good teacher and a creative scholar and researcher. With the expansion of higher education and the change of the mode of knowledge production, the governance mode of universities begins to be transformed into common governance, and the governance entity, the governance system and the governance practice change accordingly. In order to understand the governance of the university, it is needed to shift from an idealistic approach for a classical university to a realistic practice and problem-oriented approach for a modern university, namely from the state as it ought to be to the state as it is. The former approach is premised on academic power and academic community, focusing on the progress of academic power and faculty governance in the classical universities. The central idea of the approach is how the university guarantees the academic power and the interests ofthe academic community, which is a popular idea of taking academics as the center. However, the biggest flaw of it is ignoring the basic status and value of a university as an organization in its entirety. In the logic theory, college classroom teaching is criticized for seriously hindering learners’ development. The paper, however, reexamined the logic theory in perspective, and sublated its propositions to promote the flow and the efficiency of classroom teaching and boost the healthy development of students’ cognition, abilities and personalities. The logic theory holds that the world is all the facts in the logic space; the basic principle of knowing is positive affirmation; the nature of knowledge is the intrinsic logic of the world; meaningful knowledge is what can be grasped and employed in the real world. Hence, the purpose of college classroom teaching are to pass on the knowledge system which accords with the objective laws of the nature, involving organizing, imparting, accepting and testing knowledge. Yuan Mei, a reputable literate in Qing Dynasty(1644-1911) asserted that the term of “书院 (shuyuan，academy)” was originated in the two academies--“丽正书院（Lizheng Shuyuan）”and “集贤书院(Jixian Shuyuan)” in Tang Dynasty (618-907). Furthermore, he pointed out that both Lizheng Shuyuan and Jixian Shuyuan were not educational institutions by then, which is really a piece of reliable knowledge. The records which were used by later scholars to testify these two academies’educational function were not persuasive. First of all, there were no official records of teaching activities in Jixian Shuyuan according to the JiuTangshu (旧唐书). After reviewing Tangdai Zhaochi Mulu (唐代诏敕目录) and Cefu Yuangui (册府元龟) , we find that the so-called Imperial Edict on Selecting Xueshi(学士, student) of Jixian (集贤), issued in the second year of Guangde (广德) during the Daizong’s reign, which was included in Tang Daozhaoling Ji (唐大诏令集) was a misrecord; the edict was in fact the Imperial Edict on Granting Rice to Students of the Grand School, and the words therein of selecting students was of course meant for the Grand School (太学). Secondly, Pei Yaoqing’s reflections on his reading collected in Tang Yulin (唐语林) were merely literary creation meant for exchanges between scholars, which can not be taken literally as reliable records; the term of “Xueshi(学士) ” was actually a general term for the staff of or visitors to Jixian Shuyuan. This usage of the term, common in literary works of scholars of that era, can thus be corroborated by poems of Jixian Xueshi (集贤学士) Zhang Yue, Zhang Jiuling and Yuan Qianyao. Therefore, both Lizheng and Jixian Academy were not teaching institutions, which were quite different from later period’s academies. However, the term of “书院”(shuyuan, academy) really originated in these two academies. In other words, the term “书院” in later periods was inherited from the two academies--丽正书院（Lizheng Shuyuan） and 集贤书院(Jixian Shuyuan). In addition, a hypothesis that the term “书院” was a simplification of “修书院(xiushuyuan)”, an official book compilation agency of the Tang Dynasty, can be made based on available historical data. This simplification was so valued and popular at that time that many literates named their studies after it, which brought significant as well as far-reaching changes. So the term“书院” was gradually spread from the imperial court to the society, and ultimately transformed into unofficial educational institutions. Through analyzing historical literature, the initial appearance is found in the name of “丽正书院 (Lizheng Shuyuan)”, whose official designation was “丽正修书院(Lizheng Xiushuyuan)” at first. In its official name, “院（yuan, compound）” is an official agency, and “修书（xiushu, book compiling）” is a modifier of the core noun of “院”, indicating its function. People then shortened “修书院” as “书院” for convenience. This shortened name is not only convenient, but also conveys an elegant and dignified image. And it was thus cherished by literati, and gradually became the esteemed name for “修书院”. Literati and officialdom preferred to borrow the term “书院”to name their studies at that time and studios, so that its sense was expanded from the official book compilation agency to the place where Confucian scholars could do culture-related activities. Eventually it evolved into the cultural and educational institution.

Key words:the old and new and time; reminiscence and history; antiquity and profundity PAN Maoyuan；the Science of Higher Education; academicpersonality;internal and external relation ship;“Cheng”;“can-do” Zhang Chu-ting; aesthetics; education aesthetics; freedom; create university governance; academic governance; common governance; deliberative governance logic theory; college class; teaching methods Academy; Jixian Shuyuan; Education; Name and Actuality Ancient academy,The Qing Dynasty,Academy in the Qing Dynasty,subsidy,subsidy system,subsidization to students

（责任编辑黄建新）

Professor PAN Maoyuan’s Academic Personality and Creativity

XIAO Hai-tao

Firstly, Mr. PAN Maoyuan sincerely longed for learning from childhood and has been pursuing it all his life. He was born in 1920 in a poor family in Guangdong province, South China. Thanks to the hard work and earnest expectation of his parents, PAN Maoyuan could enter school, which seldom happened in poor families at that time. His road to school was rough and rugged, but he fixed his mind on learning firmly and studied very hard, especially fond of reading all kinds of books. At university (1941-1945), he majored in Education and studied Economy as a minor. Apart from consistent studying, he did a lot of things, including part-time teaching. On his way to learning, he had laid a broad and solid knowledge foundation, from which he has benefited greatly in his later research work. Another important thing he learned was to manage his time properly, which he called the method of “playing the piano”，and from which he benefits in the rest of his life.

Secondly, he is a happy good teacher and loyal to the education course. He loves to be a teacher so deeply that he once said that “I’m lucky to be a teacher in my life. If there is afterlife, I still wish to be a teacher”. In fact, his first teaching experience at the age of 15 was a failure, which did not defeat him but rather inspired him to make every effort to pursue teaching career for the rest of his life. As a teacher, he loves his students very much. Every Saturday evening he holds academic Saloon in his family, which has lasted for over 30 years and has been growing more and more prosperous with the expanding of graduate students. His home has become an important classroom and a soul home for students. Until now he has been enjoying being a happy good teacher for over 85 years.

Thirdly, he has a brilliant inquiring mind and is a creative scholar and researcher. He has a spirit of daring to be a pioneer and has opened up the Chinese Discipline of Higher Educational Research, which has commanded him great respect in China. His first attempt of the research of higher education was also a failing experience in teaching the university teachers pedagogy in the mid 1950s. At that time researchers of general pedagogy focused mainly on primary and secondary education. The special problems of higher education hadn’t caught the attention of relevant researchers. Pan Maoyuan insightfully grasped the principal differences between higher education and common education, and pointed out that the difference between them was not just a matter of degree, but a matter in kind. In his first research paper on higher education in 1957, he advocated that higher education was a kind of professional education proceeding on the base of common education, and a specialized discipline about higher education should be established. In 1978, he re-embarked on his research of higher education after ten years of interruption because of the turmoil of the Revolution of Culture (1966-1976). Thenceforth, he made efforts to successfully establish a discipline of higher education. He offered the first graduate program on higher education research research in mainland China in 1981 and published the first book of “Lectures on the Science of Higher Education”, which has laid a landmark foundation for the development of Chinese discipline of higher educational research. Until now the discipline of higher education has become an important discipline with growing researchers in China.

Professor PAN’s two personality traits of “cheng” and “can-do” are important, longcherished, core virtues in Chinese culture. Professor PAN Maoyuan is a sincere man. He has been conducting himself in the spirit of “Cheng”. Because of “Cheng”, he has achieved great success in his pursuit of educational career and educational research. He naturally blends “Cheng” and “cando” to courageously blaze a trail of research from scratch. By virtue of his “can-do”, he has made numerous creations in his founding the discipline of the research of higher education. He has realized his dream as an eminent Chinese scholar and educator. Thus, Professor PAN Maoyuan has been molded out of “cheng”, and a new era of higher educational research has been unfolded thanks to his “can-do”.

An Essay on ZHANG Chuting’s Educational Aesthetics

TU Li-hua

Professor ZHANG Chuting is a prominent contemporary educator of China. He premised all his educational ideas on aesthetics, and faithfully practiced his educational aesthetics in his university presidency, classroom teaching and instructional discourses. Professor Zhang holds that the mere existence of human being is a beauty, and humans can renew their life through continuous aesthetic creation. He believed that human’s awareness of beauty consists in their capacity for cultivation to develop and uplift their aesthetics and the ability to discover and create beauty. For a person, self-education is an endless journey of shaping and perfecting oneself. For an educator, education is an artwork that will never be deemed to have approached perfection. Commenting on sumptuous ornaments and alienation of education, he maintains that education is aesthetic only if it endows students with consciousness and creativity in their education, that is, education is aesthetic when it serves the purpose of human being’s selfeducation .

ZHANG Chuting is a creator of educational art. His ideas on educational aesthetics originated from his university management as a president, his classroom teaching and his classroom discourse refinement. He asserts that what a university refers to is its grand “learning”, i.e., a university is a place where people seek true excellency and great wisdom.He believes that a university is true to its name only when it is the place where people create beauty, which can only be realized through its “scholarship”. Accordingly, he made promoting the university’s cultural accumulation his core work, when he stepped onto the position of a university’s president. He hoped that the maturity, solemnity, and vitality of the university would bring the students enjoyment of beauty. ZHANG Chuting served two separate terms of the university presidency, skillfully managed drawing on his educational aesthetics and ultimately enhanced its sense of self-empowerment, self-confidence and freedom. Professor ZHANG Chuting is an indefatigable in thinking and teaching. His teaching is never impartment of erudition only, but also the presentation of his active thinking, thereby stimulating the thinking of the students. He advocates that the key to a university is “scholarship”, or rather, research. Research is to seek knowledge, to learn to ask questions, and to learn in solving problems, so naturally college classroom teaching should carry out such idea. Professor ZHANG believes that teaching is essentially the process of students being enlightened with how to think and study by a teacher who is studying or has ever studied the field, and that the most excellent education is under way when the teacher and students are absorbed in an continuous inquiry into the unknown. Language is the media of the communication of ideas, and the real education occurred after the emergence of language. ZHANG Chuting said that the art of speaking is the manifestation of the depth and width of one’s thought, and unique words reflect one’s unique thinking. He believes that the discourse refinement and deliberation of a self-conscious teacher will find its resources in his erudition, and have a stress on his introspection of concepts and his diversified language use. Additionally, except for the speech, a teacher possesses another powerful language for the students-- a nonverbal language, that is, a teacher’s “conduct”, the core of which is a teacher’s self-cultivation and qualities. A teacher’s attitude towards knowledge, truth, and people is often displayed in his nonverbal language-- a teacher’s manners, and appearances are natural manifestations of his erudition, thinking, kindness and modesty.

Transformation and Modernization of the University Governance

LI Li-guo

The problem-oriented realistic approach regards the university as a whole. This approach not only emphasizes the status of the faculty and academic power, but also attaches importance to the status and power of students, university leaders, administrative personnel and external stakeholders, which strives to build an effective order of authority for good quality of governance. Although there are some differences in the mode of university governance in different countries, most of the universities in the world are shifting from the traditional mode of academic governance to a common governance model. The relationship between the government and universities has an important influence on the formation of different common governance models. The characteristics of common governance are also different with different relationships between the government and universities. In the common governance model, some universities emphasize the importance of academic power, while others emphasize the importance of the participation of external forces and the focuses are placed on different aspects for different common governance modes, the political governance mode, the bureaucratic mode, and the entrepreneurial mode. The reason that it is termed as a common governance is that although administrative power and external stakeholders share the university governance with the faculty. As an academic organization, university governance can’t do without the dominant player of the faculty, simply leaving external forces or the administrative staff to run the university.

As an academic organization and an educational institution, the nature and organizational characteristics of a university dictate some rules and some common features for the university governance, such as the emphasis on academic governance and the interests of the faculty and the students, amongst others. Of all developed countries, the United States took the first step to common governance. Although there is a lot of complaints about the faculty's inadequate participation in governance, the faculty’s leading role in university governance has been guaranteed in practice, and thus the governance is effective. At present, our country has institutioned a university governance structure in which the president , under leadership of the CPC committee at the university, is overall responsible for the democratic management of the university supplemented with the faculty governance and the participation of other stakeholders. But how to make this governance structure operate effectively still needs specific policies and mechanisms-- this is the fundamental requirement of the modernization of China’s university governance. Judging from China's current circumstances and the trend in international university governance, the direction in the modernization of Chinese university governance lies in the common governance in a deliberative way. Three points are connoted as follows. First, the common governance is the trend in international higher education and university governance which also accords with the requirements of China’s university governance structure; second, it is compatible with the characteristics of university as an academic organization and an educational institution, satisfies the requirement of academic governance, and serves the leading role of the faculty in the governance; third, it puts an emphasis on the value of negotiations in the common governance which means respect, equality, cooperation and communication for good governance effect of the common governance.

Reexamining College Classroom Teaching in the Perspective of the Logic Theory: Adherence and Sublation

FAN Chun-xiangLIAO Rui

This paper believes that we must uphold the scientific nature of classroom teaching advocated by the logic theory and understand that learning is a special intensive cognitive process of acquiring indirect experience; in classroom teaching we must acknowledge the developmental value of knowledge, and the instructor’s leading role to facilitate the completion of social being through scientific classroom teaching and the logic power intrinsic to knowledge; and discipline, imitation & memory, lecture, rhetoric teaching method as well as integration of concepts are all of good use in classroom teaching. Secondly, we must overcome its inflexibilities of the logic theory. Its biggest drawback is its rigidities which deprive the students of their autonomy, the right of choice and the right of discourse. Thirdly, we must inject the artistic quality into college classroom teaching to form aesthetic images, which is the highest state of teaching, by combining the liveliness, the images and the emotions of all classroom teaching ingredients and approaches. A key is to accomplish the highest state of teaching is to make the classroom a happy place with love and passion, bring back the happiness and interest that is intrinsic to pursuing the truth, which awaken the students’ endless inquisitive desire and creativity for truth, and help them develop a habit of and an interest in seeking the truth. With empathy, a monotonous, mechanical and boring class will be changed into a free, interactive and leisurely one in which learners will keep the passion for truth, and feel the nature and continuously seek for the true, the good and the beautiful. With the premise of no distortion of the truth, the instructor can make good use of modern technology with his sense and sensibility to relieve the students of their weariness, keep their keen interest, and sharpen their thinking in their learning.

著作评述

Jixian Academy in Tang Dynasty and the Name and True Meaning of Term of “Academy”

DAI Shu-hongXIAO Yong-ming

A Survey of the Student Grant System of Academies in Qing Dynasty

ZHANG Jin-song

Qing Dynasty is the golden era for the development of Chinese ancient academies. Academies in Qing Dynasty had already developed relatively mature modes of operation. Among them, a unique student grant system played an important role in ensuring those poor students to be able to continue their courses of study and encouraging scholars to study hard, which was the critical driving force to promote the rapid development of academies in Qing Dynasty. In addition, the student grant system also became a common institution of academies in Qing Dynasty.

There were three main forms for academies in Qing Dynasty to fund the students. Under the first form, students were provided with living expenses (膏火费) periodically, which was based on certain standards. Providing students with living expenses was the main form of grants. Generally, living expenses were delivered monthly and used to help support students in their daily lives. Money was delivered as the main source of living expenses, but sometimes other foodstuff like cereals and rice were granted to the students. Furthermore, there existed two methods to deliver living expenses to students in academies. The first method was to offer grants all students according to certain standards, and another method was to determine the amount of the grant for students according to students’ performance in examinations. Anyhow, this form of grant still was essentially a kind of charity to all students. The other two forms of grants were actually rewards for excellent performance exams bysponsorships (宾兴资助). With regard to the rewards by exams, only those students who got excellent performances in the competitive examinations like exams by officers(官课) and exams by teachers(师课)were rewarded. This is different with the first form of grants because only excellent students can get them. Sponsorships referred to as grants like money for exams papers(卷金), traveling expenditures and rewards for The imperial examinations（花红,） which were granted to students in the years when the imperial examination was taken. Although the three grant forms might be slightly different respectively due to the factor of time and space, the overall grant system for students kept operating stably and flexibly in the history of Qing Dynasty.

Serving the imperial examination was generally the main purpose of student grant system of academies in Qing Dynasty, and there were extremely strict measures to monitor the delivery of grants, which not only ensured all students to be supported but also encouraged students to seek excellence through the intensive competition. Meanwhile, the student grant system paid more attention to the sustainable development of academies and feedbacks (回哺) of the students once supported. Although the student grant system of academies in Qing Dynasty had withdrawn from the stage of history due to the restructuring of academies, the experience of the student grant system is still useful and can be used for reference in designing current student assistance projects in colleges and universities.

作者简介：张楚廷（1937-），男，湖北天门人，湖南师范大学教授、博士生导师，湖南涉外经济学院名誉校长，主要从事教育哲学、高等教育学的研究；彭道林，湖南涉外经济学院副研究员。

收稿日期：2015-12-8

文章编号：1672-0717（2016）01-0117-05

文献标识码：A

中图分类号：G640