Management of pests and diseases of tropical sericultural plants by using plant-derived products:a review

R.T.Gahukar

Management of pests and diseases of tropical sericultural plants by using plant-derived products:a review

R.T.Gahukar1

Host plants of domesticated silkworms in tropical countries are attacked by an array of insect pests, disease pathogens and nematodes.In order to reduce resulting plant damage,chemicals have been extensively used.In recent years,products extracted/isolated from 47 plant species have been tested as replacements for or to minimize the use of hazardous chemicals.Bioefficacy of the extractin water or chemicalsolvent,crude seed/leaf oil, and cake is discussed,and integrated managementof major and occasional pests and plant diseases is proposed in sericultural plants in order to produce chemical-free foliage.

Commercial pesticides·Integrated management·Plant extracts·Pests and diseases· Sericulturalplants

Introduction

The major domesticated silkworms reared for raw silk production in tropicalcountries include mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori L.),eri silkworm(Philosamia ricini Huttchinson=Samia cynthia ricini Boisduval),muga silkworm(Antheraea assamensis Helfer=Antheraea assama Westwood)and tasar silkworm(Antheraea mylittaDrury).Mulberry silkworm is monophagous.It prefers white mulberry(Morus alba L.,Morus indica L.)and rarely feeds on red mulberry(Morus rubra L.)or black mulberry(Morus nigra L.).The primary host of eri silkworm is castor(Ricimus communis L.)and secondary hosts are,kessuru(Heteropanax fragrans(Roxb.)),tapioca/cassava(Manihot esculenta Crantz),payam(Evodia flaxinifolia(Hook.)Benth.)and ailanthus(Ailanthus grandis Prain,Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.).Muga silkworm has two primary host plants,viz.som(Persea bombycina(King ex Hook)Kosterm)and soalu(Litsaea monopetala(Roxb.) Perb.).Occasionally,itfeeds on Litsea salicifolia Roxb.ex Wall.,Litsea.cubeba(Lour.)Hatus,Cinnamomum glanduliferum(Wall.)Meisn.and Cinnamomum obtusifolium Nees.Food plants of the tasar silkworm include Arjun (Terminalia arjuna(Roxb.),asan(Terminalia tomentosa (Roxb.))and sal(Shorea robusta Roth)as primary hosts and＞20 plants as secondary hosts(Dandin et al.2003; Shivakumar and Shamitha 2013;Sarmah et al.2013).

Sericulturalplants are attacked throughoutthe period of growth and developmentby insects,nematodes and disease pathogens.Severity of plant damage varies from one country to anotherand within differentregions in a country (Khan etal.2004;Ma etal.2006;Gahukar2010).Damage affects leaf production and quality(particularly nutritional value,biochemical changes and moisture content),and photosynthetic activity(Narayanaswamy 2003;Tang et al. 2006;Muthuswami et al.2010;Mahadeva 2011).

Rearing silkworms on leaves ofinferiorquality notonly affects larval growth and development but also reduces cocoon yield and lowers silk quality.To produce high quality foliage,chemicalpesticides of differentgroups are sprayed on mulberry,generally 2–3 times afterpruning and before each harvest.However,indiscriminate use of pesticides can result in resistance in pests,destruction ofnatural enemies,environmental pollution and health hazards to the users.Silkworms can be intoxicated through consumption of contaminated food or when they are exposed to direct contact with pesticides in the field. Therefore,eco-friendly,biodegradable,plant-derived products/biopesticides have been recommended for protecting cultivated and non-cultivated sericultural plants (Dandin et al.2003;Gahukar 2010;Babu et al.2013).In this review,I compiled information on products derived from 47 plantspecies proven effective in use againstpests and diseases.Their modes of action are summarized in Table 1.Research constraints and opportunities of traditional preparations,commercial products and pure phytochemicals are discussed to assess the potentialutilization of integrated pestmanagement(IPM)strategies in developing and less-developed countries in the tropics.

Management of insect pests of sericultural plants Mulberry

Over 300 species of insect and non-insect pests infest mulberry(Reddy and Narayanaswamy 1999).However, the economic importance ofeach pesthas notbeen studied. The wasp moth(Amata(Sintomis)passalis Fb.,Lepidoptera:Arctiidae)is a major pest in southern India (Gangwar 2011).Severe defoliation caused by larval feeding results in poor plant growth.In laboratory bioassays,neem emulsifiable concentrate(EC)was more effective than neem dust or water dispersible powder. Within 24 h after application,neem EC caused significant reduction in leaf consumption(24–26 cm2larva-1vs. 44 cm2larva-1in control)and larval populations (65–70%mortality)(Gangwar 2011).

Hairy caterpillar(Eupterote mollifera Wlk.,Lepidoptera:Eupterotidae),which often causes complete defoliation,was controlled with neem-based formulations (Kumar 2012).Lesser pyralid(Glyphodes pyloalis Wlk., Lepidoptera:Pyralidae)was reported from the Middle-East countries.Its larvae feed on mulberry leaves and affect plant development.Leaf extract in water(5%,w/v)of a local plant(Artemisia annua L.)was effective as an oviposition deterrent,insectgrowth regulator(IGR),and as a pesticide(Khosravi et al.2010,2011).Activity of L-amylase,protease and digestive enzymes(lipase,esterase, glutathione-5-transferase)in mature larvae were significantly lowered 48 h after treatment(Khosravi et al.2011). The extract also lowered,on a dose-dependent basis,the efficiency of conversion of ingested food(representing approximate digestibility),and the efficiency ofconversion of digested food(representing metabolic activity)(Khosraviet al.2010).

Leaf webber/roller(Diaphenia pulverulentalis(Hampson),Lepidoptera:Pyralidae)causes occasionaldamage by webbing leaves together and by feeding on leaf tissues while remaining inside its web.Spraying 3%neem oil (NO)at10-day intervals or soilincorporation of neem cake (NC)at 150 kg ha-1after mixing with nitrogenous fertilizers,controlled the pest and saved beneficial fauna (Ravikumar et al.2010).

Mealy bug(Maconellicoccus hirsutus(Green),Homoptera:Pseudococcidae)is a major pest of mulberry on the Indian subcontinent.Sucking of sap from leaftissues by the nymphs and bugs results in malformation of leaves and shoots,which is popularly known as tukra disease.Both pest and disease were completely controlled by spraying NO(3%)at 10-day intervals or by mixing NC with nitrogenous fertilizers and then incorporating this mixture into soil at 150 kg ha-1(Ravikumar et al.2010).To preventthe spread ofmealy bug and tukra disease,plants were sprayed with aqueous extract of leaves of neem,Rhizophora apiculata Blume,Adhatoda vasica Nees(=Adhatoda zeylanica),Parthenium hysterophorus L.,Lantana camara L.or Prosopis juliflora(Sw.)DC(Babu et al. 1994).Other effective treatments were the water extract (10%,w/v)of leaves of Andrographis paniculata(Burm.) Wallex Nees,Vitex negundo Linn.or Ocimum sanctum L. and neem seed kernel extract(NSKE)(5%,w/v).All products showed＞90%pestrepellency(Sathyaseelam and Bhaskaran 2010).

Spiralling whitefly(Aleurodicus dispersus Russell, Homoptera:Aleyrodidae)causes economic damage to mulberry in southern India(Sakthiveletal.2011).Nymphs and adults suck sap from the lower surfaces of young and mature leaves.When attack is severe,plant vitality is considerably lowered and the vegetative growth is retarded or stopped,resulting in leaf shedding.Sooty mould develops on infested leaves that are covered with honeydew secreted by the nymphs.In the field,a combination of 0.05%dimethoate 30 EC+3%NO caused highest mortality in eggs(80.6%)as well as in nymphs and adults (94.4%)compared to other treatments,viz.0.15% dichlorvos 76 EC,0.05%dimethoate 30 EC,0.05% metasystox 25 EC,0.10%phosalone 35 EC,3%NO,3% Pongamia pinnata(L.)(=Pongamia glabra)oil,0.05% dimethoate+3%P.pinnata oil(Sakthivel et al.2011). Adultmortality of 50–68%of another species of whitefly (Dialeuropora decempuncta Qua.&Baker)resulted from application of 0.1%triazophos,0.1%acephate or 0.01% monocrotophos.Maximum mortality of 77.3%was, however,obtained with a spray mixture of 1%NO(containing 300 ppm of azadirachtin(AZ)+0.1%traizophos 40 EC)(Bandopadhyay and Santhakumar 2000).

Nymphs and leafhoppers(Empoasca flavescens F., Homoptera:Cicadellidae)suck sap from young and mature leaves,and inject saliva into the leaf tissues.Affected leaves become brick red or brown,crinkled and curled. Whole leaves gradually dry and the host plant shows stunted growth.For eco-friendly pest control,Sakthivel et al.(2012)recommended a spray mix containing NO (3%,v/v)+Fish oilrosin soap(FORS,2%,v/v)because this treatment killed 62.8%of pest populations whereas 3%NO,3%P.pinnata oil,2%FORS and 5%NSKE caused 48.7,42.7,46.8 and 33.6%mortality,respectively. In this trial,0.15%dichlorvos 76 EC was the best treatment with 88.6%mortality but it also killed 90%of populations of the major predators(coccinellids and spiders)(Sakthivel et al.2012).

Mulberry thrip(Pseudodendrothrips mori Niwa,Thysanoptera:Thripidae)attacks leaves and shoots,and the pestinjury is apparentas characteristic white streaks on the leaves.Patil etal.(2013)tested a neem-based commercial product,Nimbecidine®(0.03%EC),that proved inferior (＞5 thrips per 3 top leaves)to synthetic pesticides (0.97–1.08 thrips)butsignificantly superior to no treatment (15.31 thrips per 3 top leaves).In another field trial,thrips were controlled by spraying water extract of leaves of neem(5%,w/v),O.sanctum or P.hysterophorus(Mude et al.2012).A combination of crude NO(3%)+0.05% dimethoate 30 EC exhibited significantly greater bioefficacy(80.4%reduction in pestpopulations)than 3%oilof P.pinnata,NO or a mixture of 3%P.pinnata oil+0.05%dimethoate(70.0–75.8%reduction)(Sakthivel and Qadri 2010a).

Giant African land snail(Achatina fulica Bowdich, Mollusca:Achatinidae)excretes mucus on mulberry leaves thatrenders leaves nutritionally inferior(Shree and Kumar 2002)and silkworms reject them as food(Shree et al. 2006).To controlthis pest,the leaf extract(10%,w/v)of Calotropis procera(Ait.)Ait.was recommended by Larshinietal.(1997).Thus,FORS and products derived from at least 10 plant species were effective against pests although some synthetic pesticides proved superior to plant products.

Castor

Semilooper(Achaea janata L.,Lepidoptera:Noctuidae),a specific pestofcastor,is a voracious leaffeeder.The pestis active throughout plant growth but seedlings suffer most from pestattack.Defoliation affects plantdevelopmentand ultimately eliminates leaf yield.In the laboratory, monoterpenoids(pulgone,citronellol,citronellal,L-pinene, carvone,linalool)isolated from plants and administered at 0.01–1%concentrations to mature larva,resulted in antifeedant and IGR effects and oviposition was deterred (Jyothi et al.2007).Similarly,topical application of NO based EC(containing 300 ppm of AZ)at 2–6 ml larva-1resulted in an antifeedant response(50%)and dose-dependent larval mortality of 57–81%in the laboratory (Ramarethinam et al.2002).In the field,up to 76%mortality was recorded 24 h after spraying with Annona squamosa L.seed oil(2.5%),followed by 58.5%mortality after spraying with NSKE(1500 ppm of AZ),and 55%larval mortality after spraying with oil of A.squamosa alone or in combination with NO.Pesticidalactivity of these botanicals declined 3 days after application(Raman etal.2000).Of 11 plants evaluated in the laboratory, methanolic extract of neem leaves and hexane extract of Thevetia neriifolia Juss.ex Steud.leaves showed feeding inhibition up to 82–90%(Basu et al.1997).Oil(3%)of neem or eucalyptus also acted as a strong antifeedant to larvae(Jain et al.2006).In a field comparison,sprays of neem leaf extract or A.squamosa seed extract(20 EC) controlled A.janata(Srinivasa Rao etal.1996).Likewise, dust(15%),alcoholic extract(10%)of Clerodendrum inerme(L.)Gaertn.leaves,and neem-based Neemgard®(0.3%EC)were recommended for persistent toxicity (Basappa and Lingappa 2005).Basappa and Lingappa (2002)reported residual toxicity of C.inerme extract (10%)in the field even up to eight days after application causing greater mortality(84%)than Neemguard®(78% mortality).These results showed that extract of C.inerme has potential and may be integrated into future pest management regimes.

Woolly bear caterpillar(Pericallia ricini(F.),Lepidoptera:Arctiidae)feeds voraciously on leaves,often causing complete defoliation and the host plant dies in cases of severe attack.In the laboratory,application (0.1–1.0%)of two neem derivatives(EC-I with 0.03% AZ,EC-II with 0.09%AZ)resulted in 37%feeding deterrence and 20%feeding inhibition.It also affected larval growth and ultimately,the total growth index(Ramarethinam et al.1997).In another bioassay,neem products(leafextract,Nimbecidine®,NO,NSKE,cake extract) were sprayed on castor leaves and fed to first instar larvae of P.ricini.There was slow larval development(expressed as growth index)and malformation in insect life stages (Ramarethinam and Marimuthu 1998).

Hairy caterpillar(Spilarctia obliqua(Walker),Lepidoptera:Arctiidae)attacks plants of any age.Feeding of larvae(all instars)results in complete destruction of the young plants or causes severe defoliation in mature plants. In the laboratory,ethanolic extract of Ajuga parviflora Benth or A juga bracteosa Wall at 200 ppm applied topically to mature larvae showed significant antifeedant activity(Bansaletal.2001).Spraying of NSKE(5%)on a castor crop killed＞50%of firstinstar larvae of S.obliqua (Singh and Kanaujia 2003).

Serpentine leaf miner(Liriomyza trifolii(Burgess), Diptera:Agromyzidae)is a minor pest of castor.Larvae mine young leaves and further leaf development is retarded.This pest was controlled during the seedling stage by treating seeds with chlorpyriphos 1.5EC@3 g kg-1seeds followed by spraying the crop with 2%NSKE(Murthy and Prasad 1996).

Nymphs and leafhoppers(Jacobiasca furcostylus(Ramakrishnan and Menon 1972))(Homoptera:Cicadellidae) suck sap from tender leaves,making them shrivelled with reddish margins.Finally,leaves dry and fallfrom the plant. Parmar et al.(2004)controlled this pest by spraying AZ (0.00075%),but this product was less effective than a mixture of 0.03%dimethoate 30 EC+0.006%imidacloprid 17.8 SL,indicating the need for chemical intervention in pest control.

Overall,plant products showed varied results in insect controlin the laboratory and the field.They were atpar in killing immature stages and causing IGR effects.These studies suggested thattreatmentshould be focused on early instars.

Other host plants

Tapioca is attacked by spiralling white fly and papaya mealy bug,which are currently considered economic pests in India(Sakthiveland Qadri2010c).Spraying a mixture of 0.05%dimethoate 30 EC+3%NO or 3%FORS resulted in the reduction of whitefly populations by＞85% and mealy bug by up to 80%.Any single insecticide however gave only up to 70-76%reduction.In field trials, replacing 0.05%dimethoate with 0.15%dichlorvos 76 EC was less effective against white fly(65–80%reduction)or mealy bug(53–69%reduction).In contrast,a combination of dimethoate with NO,dimethoate,or FORS controlled the pestand resulted in significantly higher leaf yield(656–672 g plant-1)than non-treated plants (479–15 g plant-1)(Sakthivel 2013).Stem borer(Zeuzera indica Helf.,Lepidoptera:Cossidae)bores into the stem and branches of som and soalu,feeds on internal tissues and forms a netby extracting silky thread.In severe attack, young plants are killed and mature plants slowly dry and bear borer holes on the stem.In field trials,up to 95%of the borers were killed when cotton swabs soaked in 100% aqueous extractof neem,castor,P.pinnata,D.metel or A. vasica were inserted into borer holes(Sahu et al.2008). This is a practical method but farmers should be trained in proper handling and application techniques.

In castor and mulberry fields,over 10 plant species showed at least one or two modes of action in control of insect pests.Synthetics were more effective than plant-derived products in some trials.Seed extracts and oilwere more effective than cake or leaf extract.

Management of diseases of sericultural plants

Mulberry

Although bacteria,fungi and viruses attack mulberry, fungal diseases are most common(Khan et al.2004). Seedlings recently emerged from the soil are infected by root rotting fungi(Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht,Fusarium solani(Mart.)Sacc.,Hypocreales:Nectriaceae). Infection is generally localized within stems above the soil line and the roots rot often killing the whole plant.In in vitro evaluation,an aqueous extractofleaves of Psidium guajava L.(Manmohan and Govindaiah 2012)or water extractofneem or P.pinnata leaf/cake were mosteffective in reducing spore germination and production,and inhibiting mycelial growth of these pathogens(Philip and Sharma 1997).

Leaf/twig blight disease is caused by Fusarium pallidororeum(Cooke)Sacc.and Fusarium monoliforme var. intermedium Neish&Leggettand leads to developmentof spots of different colours and shapes on leaves,and the infection later spreads to the stem.Infected leaves turn completely brown and falloff the plant.In the laboratory, leafextract(20%,w/v)of P.pinnata was highly toxic with 78–84%inhibition in mycelial growth in F.oxysporum whereas leaf extract of neem or Calotropis gigantea Ait. caused maximum inhibition only up to 73–78%(Gupta et al.1996).Under greenhouse conditions,ethanolic extracts were more effective than the aqueous extracts (Gulzar et al.2009).However,an aqueous extract(25%) of P.pinnata reduced the incidence of leaf blightby up to 64–67%and of leaf spot by up to 57–60%without causing any phytotoxicity(Gupta et al.1996).Further experimentation is needed to confirm these findings.

In in vitro tests,the highest mycelial growth inhibition (72.6%)of Cercospora moricola Cooke(Capnodiales: Mycosphaerellaceae),the incitant of white leaf spot,was recorded for water extract(10%,w/v)of Eucalyptus globulus Labill.,and was followed by 49%inhibition with extract(10%)of O.sanctum.Among oils,Madhuca indica G.F.Gmel(3%)was the best treatment(75.7%growth inhibition)followed by Cymbopogan citratus(DC)Stapf (0.05%)73.2%inhibition(Rajagopal Reddy et al.2009). These studies showed that plant extracts and seed oils are toxic to major fungal species.

Recently,Gulzar et al.(2013)reported maximum inhibition(91–93%)in conidial germination in F.pallidororeum with water extract of A.sativum or Datura stramonium L.,whereas mycelialgrowth was reduced with ethanolic extract of Allium sativum L.or Matricaria chamomile L.From a screening trial on 21 plant species,Maji et al.(2005)reported that brown leaf spot caused by Myrothecium roridum Tode ex Fries(Hypocreales)was best controlled in vitro by spraying leaf extract of Allium cepa L.(33.3%inhibition ofcolony growth),followed by neem extract(25.0%inhibition).

Spraying water extractof A.sativum or Datura metel L. against Pseudocercospora mori(Hara)Deighton(Capnodiales:Mycosphaerellaceae)that causes grey leaf spot yielded maximum inhibition(33%)in mycelial growth (Maji et al.2005).In this bioassay,water extracts of A. sativum,O.sanctum,Moringa oleifera Lamk.and Holarrhena antidysentrica(L.)Wallex DC),were less effective (Maji etal.2005).When a commercialproduct Akasmoni 200C®(containing crude aqueous extract of the funicles (ovary stalks)of Acacia auriculiformis A.Cunn.),was sprayed on mulberry plants,incidence of Cercospora leaf spot was reduced by up to 50%(Datta and Datta 2007). But its effectiveness was not compared with chemical fungicides and crude or formulated plant-derived products.

Leaf rust is caused by a fungus(Cerotelium fici Arthur), Uredinales:Phakoporaceae)that produces small reddish pustules on the underside ofmulberry leaves.The infection later spreads to other parts,weakening the plant.In field trials,rustwascompletely controlled by spraying an extract prepared by overnight soaking of 1 kg leaves in a litre of water.Plants tested included neem,O.sanctum,Carica papaya L.,Phyllanthus niruri Hook and V.negundo (Chandrasekharan et al.2012).

White powdery patches(symptoms of powdery mildew disease)on the lowersurface ofleaves are produced by the fungus(Phyllactinia corylea(Pers.)Karst.,Erysiphales: Erysiphaceae).The powdery mass later spreads to the entire leaf,which turns yellow and becomes friable leading to defoliation.Using a poisoned food technique,Majietal. (2005)concluded that complete inhibition of conidial germination was possible with ethanolic extract(5%,w/v) of Cassia tora L.or Cassia sophera L.leaves.Gangwar et al.(2000)conducted in vitro and in vivo trials and recorded 70%inhibition in conidialgermination with leaf extract(5%)in water of neem leaves.Lower efficacy was recorded for leaf extracts of A.sativum,Chromolaena odorata L.,A.vasica and Mirabilis jalapa L.

In order to controla disease complex(powdery mildew, leaf spots,rust)in mulberry,Biswas et al.(1995)recommended sprays of water extract(10%,w/v)of neem,A. vasica,Launaea coromandelica(Jingan),Oxalis corniculata L.,Celosia argentea L.or C.odorata.Likewise, incidence of all Fusarium diseases was reduced by up to 60–67%with aqueous extract(25%)of P.pinnata,C. gigantea or neem,which inhibited 73–78%of mycelial growth(Gupta et al.1996).

Castor

Grey rot fungus(Amphobotrys ricini Hennebert,Helotiales:Sclerotiniaceae)firstinfects leaves thatturn reddish, and later the disease spreads to stems or below-ground parts.Plants may therefore have stunted growth or dead terminal shoots.This disease was effectively controlled in the laboratory by spraying water extract(1%)of L. camara which resulted in 60%inhibition of the fungal spores.Extracts of neem,A.squamosa,D.metel,C. gigantea,Gliricidia sepium(Jacq.)Kunth ex Walp and P. pinnata were less effective(Bhattiprolu and Bhattiprolu 2006).

Castor wiltis caused by a fungus(Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.ricini(For.)).Infected tissues rot and show vascular discoloration.Yellowing and drying of leaves,wilting and death of branches are other symptoms.In vitro and field experiments showed that2%waterextractofneem leaves, A.cepa bulbs or Curcuma longa L.rhizomes can reduce mycelial growth.Maximum reduction of 73 and 100% was,however,obtained with sprays of neem extract and seed treatment with carbendazim(3 g kg-1seed),respectively(Chattopadhyay and Varaprasad 2001).From laboratory and field trials,it can be concluded that the plantderived products can give reasonable controlofdiseases of sericultural plants.

Management of nematodes in mulberry

Root-knot nematode(Meloidogyne incognita(Kofoid& White)Chitwood,Nematoda:Heteroderidae)is a major endoparasitoid of mulberry.Root feeding by nematodes restricts nutrient flow to aerial parts of the plant causing retarded growth and low foliage productivity.In the field,a new commercial product,Cina®(based on crude aqueous extract or ethanolic extract of flowering meristem of Artemisia nilagirica(Clarke)Pamp.)was compared with Akashmoni 200®in applications as foliar sprays.These treatments resulted in reduction of the juvenile population in the rootand improved plantgrowth(e.g.fresh biomass of shoot,rootlength,number of leaves)(Sukuletal.2001; Datta 2006;Datta and Datta 2007).Of 109 indigenous plant species tested,methanolic extract of neem,Clitoria ternatea L.or Passiflora foetida L.checked egg hatching and juvenile survival to the extent of 75–100%(Vijaya Kumari and Lakshmi Devi 2013).Nematode control was also possible with NC applied to soilevery year at2 t ha-1in four doses at intervals of 3 months,combined with mulching of neem or P.pinnata green leaves at2.55 t ha-1(Singh 2009).

Root-knotdisease results from a complex ofa nematode (M.incognita)and two fungi(F.solani,F.oxysporum). When 21 plants were tested in vitro,20%(w/v)water extract of A.sativum bulbs eliminated mycelial growth, inhibited egg hatching up to 80–90%and caused 76–80% larval mortality.The next best treatment was 20%(w/v) extract of Lawsonia inermis L.leaves(Nishitha Naik et al. 2007).

Future perspective

Monitoring of pests and diseases

New pests and diseases of sericultural plants,including wild species,have been recorded in the lastdecade.Some pests have attained economic status buttheir bioecology is yet to be studied,particularly in the hot-spot areas,to determine the criticalsusceptible stages in pestlife history. For example,papaya mealy bug(Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara De Willink)is found on nearly 60 plant species but has recently became a serious pest of mulberry in India(Mahalingam et al.2010).Other new records of mulberry pests include armyworm(Spodoptera litura Fb.)(RajagopalReddy etal.2000a),red spidermites (Panonychus sp.,Tetranychus sp.)(Dar et al.2011)and yellow mite(Phagotarsonemus latus(Banks))(Chauhan etal.2002).In castorplantations,spiny caterpillar(Ariadne merione merione Cramer)is a new and voracious defoliator,destroying even mature leaves(Rode et al.2012).On som trees,stem borer(Zeuzera multistrigata Moore)larvae feed on the middle portion of the stem while hairy caterpillar(Euproctis sp.)defoliates the plants(Biswas and Ray 2009).Termites(Microtermers spp.)and brown bug (Agonoscelllis nubile Fb.)on kessuru(Sarmah etal.2013), and a gall forming insect(Ormyrus sp.)on som trees (Gogoi et al.2013)have been reported for the first time from India.

New diseases of mulberry include sooty mold(Capnodium sp.)(Lakshmi Reddy et al.2001)and leaf spot (Alternaria tenuissima(Kunze)Wiltshire)from India (Rajagopal Reddy et al.2000b),two sclerotial pathogens (Cibora shiraiana(Henn.)Whetzel and Scleromitrula shiraiana(Henn.)Imai.)from Korea(Hong et al.2007), mosaic dwarf viroid-like disease(Wang et al.2010b)and wilt-causing Enterobacter complex from China(Wang et al.2010a).There is increasingly broad distribution of plant diseases into new geographical areas.Examples are powdery mildew caused by Phyllactinia guttata(Wattr) Lev.in the eastern Mediterranean region of Turkey(Kurt and Soylu 2001)and rustdisease caused by Cerotellium fici Arthur in southwestern Nigeria(Baiyewu et al.2005). Regular monitoring of seasonal incidence or outbreaks of new pests and disease edpidemics is needed in regions where mulberry and castor are cultivated on a large scale.Forthis purpose,a system ofweather-based forecasting can serve as useful tool for the hot-spot areas(Mukhopadhyay and Santhakumar 2010a).

Integrated management

As a preventive measure,plant products can be used to restrictspread ofnew pests and diseases in the near future. Fixing a scale ofeconomic threshold levels for major pests and diseases should be undertaken to avoid financially and ecologically ill-advised applications.Obviously,field trials on the newly introduced plant-derived pesticides are needed to develop confidence among sericulturists who are eagerto produce chemical-free raw silk.The waterextracts ofindigenous plants can easily be prepared by farmers with little money.Otherwise,they can buy commercial products.Plant products are generally non-toxic to common predators(coccinellids and spiders)and a larvalparasitoid (Microplitis maculipennis Szepligeti)(Basappa and Lingappa 2005;Sakthivel and Qadri 2010b;Sakthivel et al. 2012).

In mulberry fields,the predatory coccinellid beetles (Microspis crocea Mulsant,Microspis discolor Fb.,Brumus saturalis Fb.,Scymnus bourdilloni Kapur)were protected by spraying NO(2%),P.pinnata oil(2%),nicotine extract(2%),a mixture of nicotine extract(1%)+P. pinnata oil(1%)(1:1)or a mixture of NO(1%)+P. pinnata oil(1%)(10:1).These treatments saved 9–28%of the predatory population as compared to 0–1%with dimethoate(0.1%)(Mukhopadhyay and Santhakumar 2010b).However,two coccinellid beetles(Illeis cincta (Fb.),Illeis bistigmosa(Mulsant))feeding on powdery mildew fungus were affected by sprays of 2%NO(Krishnakumar and Maheswari2004).These findings indicate that the toxic effects of plant-derived products on natural enemies of major pests have not been studied extensively in sericultural plants.

Considering the reported toxicity,Prabhakar et al. (2003)replaced NO with NSKE(5%)in IPMmodules for castor trees infested by A.janata.Sharma et al.(2013) suggested inclusion of NC at800 kg ha-1in plantnutrient managementalong with othermeasures(deep soildigging, mulching of Sesbania aculeata)for suppression of soil borne fungi causing stem canker,die back and root rot in mulberry.This integrated approach increased leaf yield by 35%over non-IPM field.Plant-derived products are thus well suited for effective and economic IPM in plantations while reducing the contamination caused by chemical pesticides that are currently used,viz.endosulfan, dichlorvos,malathion,dimethoate,metasystox,triazophos, acephate(Bandopadhyay and Santhakumar 2000;Parmar et al.2004;Sakthivel et al.2011,2012).Moreover,the bioefficacy of extracts in water or organic solvents, essential oil,crude oil and commercial EC formulations needs to be tested in order to recommend only those pesticides that have potential for pest control with least disturbance to beneficial fauna,low risk to field workers and personnel engaged in silkworm rearing.From this review, itis evidentthatonly pestmortality has been addressed by research,while the cost:benefit ratios and ecological impacts in different agrosystems are also important parameters to be considered.

Research and extension

Of 47 plant species used in sericultural plantations,the family Fabaceae accounts for 7 species,followed by Asteraceae with 5 species(Table 1).The most effective and widely used plantis A.indica followed by P.pinnata. There is great scope for isolating phytochemicals from several tropical plant species possessing pesticidal potential in the tropics because these plants are easily located and abundant in various localities.In future,research and extension should be oriented towards IPM or at least a combination of treatments.Generally,facilities for isolation/extraction,identification and synthesis of phytochemicals,and for testing residues on/in foliage,are meagre or lacking in the developing and less-developed countries.

Synergism between plant-derived products is another area where intensive research could be undertaken.It has been demonstrated that synthetics mixed with NO can cause greater mortality in white flies(Bandopadhyay and Santhakumar 2000;Parmar et al.2004;Sakthivel et al. 2011)and a mixture of NO+FORS was more effective against leafhoppers(Sakthivel et al.2012)than any individual compound.Also,dosages of synthetics can be halved to reduce application cost(Gahukar2014a).Despite these benefits,research on synergism with organic/natural products,oils in particular,is limited(Galllindo et al. 2010).

In recent years,there has been renewed interest in the development of phytochemicals and natural products that are often more effective than or equivalent to synthetics against certain pest species and disease pathogens.Thus, packages of treatments comprised of compatible and currently available controlmeasures can be advocated.There are factors associated with bioefficacy of phytochemicals thatneed research focus(Gahukar 2014b).Stringent quality measures are required for products introduced into local markets to make them competitive with synthetic products. This would be helpful in keeping pests and diseases under check or,at least,in offering reasonable success in achieving protection while checking over-use and faulty application of pesticides on sericultural plantations.In future,organic farming can also be a viable solution to this problem(Babu et al.2013).Similarly,new eco-friendlycommercialproducts such as the nematicide Bionema®and fungicides Raksha®and Nurseryguard®,should be tested in farm fields for their effectiveness and economics.

Sericulturists having little knowledge of the use of indigenous plants,will need training in integrated management of pests and diseases.This would encourage the production of chemical-free fibre for which there is increasing worldwide awareness and exportpotential.

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29 May 2014/Accepted:19 September 2014/Published online:21 July 2015

©Northeast Forestry University and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

The online version is available at http://www.springerlink.com

Corresponding editor:Chai Ruihai

✉R.T.Gahukar rtgahukar@gmail.com

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