胡宗义+朱丽+唐李伟
摘要 在“节能减排”呼声日益高涨的现实背景下,中国政府加大了对碳排放行业的环
境公共支出力度。本文根据1998-2011年中国省际面板数据,考虑政府支出和碳排放的双向
作用机制,在碳排放与经济增长相互影响的联立方程模型中引入政府公共支出变量,研究政
府公共支出对碳排放的影响。研究结果表明:政府公共支出对碳排放既具有负向的直接作用,
能够发挥减排效应,又能在经济发展的不同阶段通过促进经济增长来发挥间接作用,间接效
应的强弱和方向与收入水平密切相关:在均值收入水平下,政府公共支出对碳排放的影响中
正向的间接效应占主导地位,从而使得总效应为正,不具有减排效应。此外,我们计算得出
CO2倒N型曲线的转折点为720元和271 445元,到2011年我国所有省份都处于CO2倒N型曲线的上升阶段,人均收入提高会直接增加碳排放,并且离跨越转折高点还有
较远距离。进一步研究发现,人均物质资本、经济开放度和产业结构都对碳排放存在正向影
响,会加剧地区的碳排放污染;而受教育程度的提高以及人口规模的扩大在一定程度下会增
加人们对高质量环境的需求,从而减缓碳排放进程。因此,对经济发展水平不同的地区,亟
待实施差异化的公共支出政策来实现经济增长和环境保护的协调发展。
关键词 公共支出;经济增长;碳排放;联立方程模型
中图分类号 F812.7 文献标识码 A
文章编号 1002-2104(2014)10-0032-09
doi:10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2014.10.006
改革开放30多年来,中国的工业化道路带来了城镇化进程的迅猛推进和经济的高速稳定增长,创造了“中国经济增长奇迹”。高污染、高能耗换取经济增长的发展模式加大了资源环境压力,环境问题特别是碳排放所诱发的全球气候变暖问题日益严重。《中国气候公报》显示2013年全国平均气温10.2℃,较常年偏高0.6℃,为1961
年以来第四暖年,极端高温事件不断增加,彰显了温室气体过多排放所带来的不良后果。2014
年最新出炉的“全球环境绩效指数”(Environmental Peformance Index,EPI)排名中,中国
在178个国家中排在第118位,并且就单项空气污染指标来看,中国排在最后一名。
碳减排问题已经成为经济发达国家和发展中国家对话的重要内容,中国也面临着由于碳减排所形成的国际环境约束。从公共支出方面来看,2000-2012十三年间,政府用于环境污染治理投资由1 014.9亿元提高到8 253.46亿元,增幅接近8倍,显示出国家政府治理污染的决心。但长期以来,中国式的分权改革使得地方政府在财政支出和资源配置上拥有相对自由的裁量权。在以GDP增长为核心的政绩考核标准下,为“增长而竞争”的地方政府出于理性选择和思维惯性会偏好于生产性的财政支出,阻碍服务性支出的增长。一些地方政府为了吸引外部资源甚至放松对碳排放污染行业的监管,影响了政府公共支出直接的碳减排效应。除直接效应外,政府公共支出通过经济增长间接影响碳排放的路径机制同样值得重视[1]。当前,在国际社会要求中国“节能减排”呼声日益高涨的形势下,研究政府公共支出对碳排放的具体影响,揭示两者之间的相互作用机理,对解释我国政府的支出意向、实现“低碳社会”目标和促进经济社会的协调可持续发展具有很强的现实意义。
1 文献述评
对于政府应在环境保护领域扮演的角色以及如何起作用的相关研究,最早始于19世纪90年代。碳排放作为环境领域中的一种纯公共物品,Marshall[2]在其著作《经济学原理》中开创性地提出“外部经济”的概念,主张政府应该介入这一领域。此后,Pigou[3]从福利经济学的角度,针对环境污染的外部性提出“庇古税”的概念,认为可以通过对排污企业征税,将污染的外部成本“内部化”。国内对政府和环境保护之间关系的研究展开较晚,但也成果颇丰。理论研究均表明政府在碳排放领域具有特殊的作用和地位,可以实施相应的环境财政政策发挥引导作用和强制作用,如政府的直接投资、财政补贴、政府“绿色”采购制度以及环境性因素的财政转移支付等[4-5]。纵观国内外早期相关的研究,学者们主要从理论上强调政府在碳减排中的突出地位,缺乏从实证角度具体分析政府公共支出的减排效应。随着对该领域研究的深入,一些学者开始运用计量模型进行研究。按照研究角度和层次的不同,本文从以下3个方面梳理了国内外一些相关文献。
第一类侧重研究了公共支出对经济增长的作用。公共支出作为政府调整经济运行的主要政策工具,对两者关系的研究一直是热点问题,但均未达成共识性结论。持有公共支出促进经济增长观点的学者认为,政府公共支出为经济增长提供了大量的公共品和其他具有外部效应的社会先行资本,鼓励和便利了私人资本投资[6-9];而持反对意见者认为,政府决策的无效率和干预的无效率可能会扭曲税收和激励系统、干预自由市场的运行,增长的公共支出可能会通过挤出私人领域的投资阻碍经济增长[10-13]。
第二类研究主要探讨碳排放与经济增长之间的经验关系,围绕环境库茨涅茨曲线(EKC)关系展开。自Grossman和Krueger提出EKC曲线以来,EKC理论已成为研究碳排放和经济增长关系的基本框架。Jalil[14]通过中国1975-2005年的经验数据研究发现碳排放状况随人均收入的增加先恶化而后改善,为EKC曲线关系的存在提供了理由。Apergis和Payne[15]、Esteve[16]、林伯强和蒋竺均[17]、魏下海[18]、许海平[19]等也发现了相同的研究结论。但是也有一些学者的实证分析质疑CO2EKC曲线的存在,Agras和Chapman[20] 在动态面板数据模型的基础上进行研究发现碳排放并不存在显著的EKC曲线,库兹涅茨曲线假设值得怀疑;Wagner[21]运用100个国家的面板数据,得出碳排放和人均收入之间呈单调递增关系;刘倩[22]对15个主要碳排放国实证研究发现绝大多数国家的碳排放量与经济增长之间存在正的线性关系。
第三类研究围绕公共支出、经济增长和环境这一整体框架展开,探讨政府公共支出对环境的影响。多数实证研究表明,政府规模对环境直接影响的作用方向还不明确(Frederik 和 Lundstrom[23];Bernauer和 Koubi[24])。但也有实证研究表明存在政府支出有助于减少污染物排放的证据。如Lopez和Galinato[25]重点研究了公共支出结构变化对环境的影响,分析得出政府对公共产品和私人产品的再分配会降低水污染和SO2排放。在一个类似的研究中,Lopes和Palacios[26]发现,增加公共产品的供给仍会带来更优质的空气质量。
综上所述,虽然目前对于公共支出和环境保护之间关系的研究从理论到实证都已经取得一定的成果,但针对公共支出对碳排放的影响效应进行的研究还处于空白期,并且鲜有文献关注公共支出对碳排放的间接影响机制。此外,在研究对象上,已有研究大多是以经济合作和发展组织(OECD)集团中的全部或者个别国家作为研究对象,运用单方程模型展开实证研究,较少对单一发展中国家的环境问题进行分析,从省级层面考察公共支出对碳排放影响效应的文献基本没有。鉴于此,本文基于1998-2011年中国29个省市的省际面板数据,利用包含政府公共支出、人均收入和碳排放的联立方程模型,系统地估计中国公共支出对碳排放的直接效应、间接效应和总效应。
第一,直接的路径机制。一方面,CO2作为一种纯公共物品,使得本地的环境质量取决于所有地区排放污染物的总量,政府必须直接通过公共支出来矫正碳排放的市场失灵[27];另一方面,政府公共支出对私人部门的技术创新直接进行投资时,将会产生正向的杠杆效应和负向的挤压效应,碳排放可能减少或者增加,发挥出公共支出的直接效应[1]。但同时Shafik[28]提出当一种污染物的治理成本不确定时,其影响范围愈广以及影响后代的可能性越大,都将会降低人们对改善环境的技术创新的需求。正如Stern[29]在其研究中所分析得出的,碳减排成本高回报低的特性使得各地区政府的主动减排意愿不足,削弱了公共支出的直接碳减排效应。
第二,间接的路径机制。一方面,在EKC分析框架下,政府公共支出通过影响经济增长从而间接影响碳排放;另一方面,碳排放对政府公共支出的间接影响表现为:在经济发展初期,产生大量CO2的化石能源作为经济增长过程中的必要投入或者副产品能直接推动经济增长,当经济发展到某些阶段时,政府会实施相应的扩张性或者
紧缩性的财政政策来调控经济,由此改变公共支出的规模和结构[1]。
2.3.4 控制变量
参照大多数学者的相关研究并考虑数据的可得性,控制变量包括经济开放度(open)、人均物质资本存量(capital)、人口密度(popden)、产业结构(sect)、受教育程度(edu)和人口增长率(poprate)。其中经济开放度(open)用进出口总额占GDP比重的经济开放度指标作为控制变量;人均物质资本存量(capital)参照张军等[31]的做法,以2000年各省区的资本存量为基期各省份的资本存量,然后除以各地区人口总数得到;人口密度(popden)用各地区总人口除以行政区面积表示;产业结构(sect)依据各地区第二产业的总产值除以当年的地区生产总值得到;受教育程度借鉴国内学者徐现祥[32]和张学良[33]的做法,使用平均受教育年限作为其代理变量;人口增长率(poprate)用
各地区的人口自然增长率来表示。表1给出了相应指标原始数据的基本统计性描述。
3 模型估计及效应分解
3.1 变量的平稳性检验
以往学者在EKC框架中进行研究时,大多都忽略了对变量进行平稳性检验。一些非平稳的经济时间序列往往表现出共同的变化趋势,此时,若直接进行估计,常常导致“伪回归”或“虚假回归”。出于严谨考虑,本文选择了目前研究中使用相对广泛的两种方法检验变量的平稳性,即判别共同单位根存在性的Levin Lin and Chu T统计量(以下简称为LLC)和判别个体单位根存在性的Fisher
ADF统计量(以下简称为ADF)。检验过程中的滞后阶数根据施瓦茨准则判定,结果见表2所示。检验结果表明,模型中所有变量都在1%的显著性水平上拒绝了单位根的存在,排除了“伪回归”的可能。
3.2 联立方程系统下方程(1)的估计结果分析
表3给出了不同估计方法下政府公共支出对人均收入影响的结果。政府公共支出比率系数在所有的回归方法下都是正的并且高度显著。Hausman检验拒绝了随机效应模型的有效性,过度识别的Hansen检验显示没有证据拒绝工具变量外生的原假设,说明方程使用的工具变量有效。此外,CraggDonald Fstatistic的值为44.652,远大于StockYogo弱工具变量在10%的临界值,表明本文建立的计量模型并不存在弱工具变量问题。表3显示,政府公共支出在2SLS估计方法下具有更大的产出弹性(0.728),意味着政府公共支出比率提高1%会带来人均收入水平0.728%的提升。这表明公共支出对经济增长有显著的正效应,能够提供经济发展所需的部分先行资本,增加私人部门生产性投资的效益,为中国经济的起飞创造良好的生产经营和投资环境。这一点和经济学的直觉相符,与Barth和Bradley[34]、Engen和Skinner[35]等的经验研究一致,也与庄子银[36]、刘生龙[37]对中国的研究结果类似。
值得注意的是,在其他一些能够影响人均收入的变量中,人均物质资本和经济开放度都有显著的正向影响,符合理论预期。表3的结果还表明人口增长和教育都对人均收入有负面影响,对于这两点我们也能从国内的实际经济运行中找到一些可能的解释。众所周知,我国是一个人
口和劳动力大国,人口的过快增长阻碍了我国产业从劳动
密集型向技术密集型转型,削弱了我国的自主创新能力,从而对经济增长产生了不利影响。教育对人均收入有负向影响,一方面可能与公共教育投入结构不尽合理有关,政策更多地倾向沿海地区,未能充分发挥对地区经济增长的促进作用;另一方面可能是因为教育对经济增长具有门槛效应,当前中国的教育水平还未达到临界值,没有发挥出应有的促进作用。
3.3 联立方程系统下方程(2)的估计结果分析
表4给出了政府公共支出对碳排放影响的2SLS方法的估计结果。Hausman检验确定固定效应形式优于随机效应形式,Hansen检验则为工具变量估计的有效性提供了理由。为了比较,本文分别给出了OLS、FE和2SLS的估计结果。结果显示大部分变量的系数并没有受到不同
估计方法的影响,考虑到内生性影响和口径一致问题,本文将只评述表4中2SLS方法估计得到的结果。
由表4可知,政府公共支出对碳排放有显著的直接减排效果,即政府公共支出通过对企业环境友好型的技术创新提供补贴可以提高能源的利用率,减少碳排放,改善环境质量。具体而言,政府公共支出比率提高1%,将会使人均碳排放减少0.228%。人均物质资本的系数为正,但结果并不显著。可能的解释为资本是工业经济增长的重要引擎,资本密集型行业往往带来更多污染物,但这一影响目前并不稳定。受教育程度的影响系数为负,一般认为教育水平的提高将会提升劳动者素质,改善资本利用效率,推动企业技术创新,减少对能源的路径依赖。但中国
当前的教育投入还远远不够,教育的碳减排效应还未得到
4 结论与启示
本文主要讨论了中国财政分权的制度背景下政府公共支出的碳减排效应问题。本文得到了如下的基本结论及启示:第一,政府公共支出对经济具有正的“溢出”作用,能显著促进经济增长;第二,政府公共支出对碳排放有显著的直接减排效应;在经济发展的不同阶段政府公共支出对碳排放的间接效应是变动的,使得最终的总效应曲线形状和间接效应曲线形状基本相同,具体来说,在当前的收入水平下,增加政府公共支出会加大碳排放,并不具有减排效应;第三,碳排放与人均收入之间存在倒N型的曲线关系。
鉴于上述结论,中国想要实现“低碳社会”目标,需要根据不同省份经济发展的实际情况来实施不同规模和结构的公共支出政策。第一,对东部发达省份来说,经济发展水平已经跨入CO2倒N型曲线的第三阶段,而且政府公共支出的增加能有效减少碳排放。此时政府应加大对科技、教育等领域的投入,加快技术创新步伐,优化产业结构,提高污染性行业在当地的生存门槛,促进产业结构的“去污染化”,对部分碳排放基数较高的发达省份,可以制订严格的减排政策,充分发挥政府公共支出的碳减排效应。第二,在经济基础相对薄弱的中西部地区,经济发展水平还处于CO2倒N型曲线的上升阶段,而且碳排放效应中正向的间接效应占主导地位,政府公共支出并不能有效发挥碳减排效应。此时,政府应重视对相对落后地区的基础设施以及基本公共服务的投入,大力发展资源节约型和环境友好型产业,为西部地区经济的腾飞创造良好的环境,尽快跨越CO2倒N型曲线的第二阶段,同时应逐步落实相应的碳排放规制,建立健全碳排放的产权保护和市场机制,实现经济和环境的协调发展。
本文在分析政府公共支出对碳排放影响效应的深度和广度方面还有待进一步研究和拓展,如文中仅考虑了政府公共支出规模对碳排放的效应,没有充分考虑不同公共支出项目对碳排放的影响,可以借助Grossman[38]的思想,进一步分解和探讨地方政府公共支出结构对碳排放的影响效应,挖掘出支出结构偏向背后蕴含的环境经济学含义,从而更好地指导政府各种碳排放政策的制订,实现更大程度的减排,这也是一个值得研究的课题。
(编辑:常 勇)
参考文献(References)
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[38]Grossman G M, Krueger A B. Economic Growth and the Environment [J]. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1995, 110(2): 353-377.
Exploring the Impacts of Government Public Expenditure on Carbon Emissions in China:
An Empirical Analysis Based on Panel Simultaneous Equation Model
HU Zongyi ZHU Li TANG Liwei
(School of Finance and Statistics, Hunan University, Changsha Hunan 410079,China)
Abstract
Under the background of energysaving and emission reduction, China has enforced the
environmental public expenditure on industry with carbon emissions. Based on the interactional mechanism
between carbon emissions and public expenditure, we make use of panel data of 29 provinces in China during
1998-2011 to construct the simultaneous equation model, exploring the relationship among carbon emissions,
economic growth and public expenditure. The results show that government public expenditure has a negative
direct effect on per capita carbon emission, which could hinder emission abatement. Further it could operate
through impacting on per capita income to have indirect effect at different stages of economic development. The
strength and direction of the indirect effect are closely related to income level. Moreover the total effects of
government public expenditure on carbon emissions follow the patterns of positive indirect effects at the mean
income level, which means that public expenditure could not reduce carbon emissions at all. Furthermore the
two turningpoint of the invertedNshaped curve is 720 and 271 445 RMB, respectively. All the provinces are
situating at the rise phase of the invertedNshaped curve. The increasing of per income leads to the carbon
emissions, and its a long time to get through the turningpoint. In addition, per capital, trade liberalization and
industrial structure have positive effects on carbon emissions, which mean it would aggravate the carbon
emissions. While the enhancement of education and population would increase peoples requirement of the
quality of environment in some extent and slow down the speed of carbon emissions. Therefore, it is urgent to
implement different public expenditure policies to achieve the coordinated development between economic
growth and environmental protection in different regions.
Key words public expenditure; economic growth; carbon emissions; simultaneous equation model
[37]刘生龙,胡鞍钢. 基础设施的外部性在中国的检验:1988-2007[J]. 经济研究,2010,(3):4-15. [Liu Shenglong, Hu Angang. Test on the Externality of Infrastructure in China: 1988-2007 [J]. Economic Research Journal, 2010, (3):4-15.]
[38]Grossman G M, Krueger A B. Economic Growth and the Environment [J]. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1995, 110(2): 353-377.
Exploring the Impacts of Government Public Expenditure on Carbon Emissions in China:
An Empirical Analysis Based on Panel Simultaneous Equation Model
HU Zongyi ZHU Li TANG Liwei
(School of Finance and Statistics, Hunan University, Changsha Hunan 410079,China)
Abstract
Under the background of energysaving and emission reduction, China has enforced the
environmental public expenditure on industry with carbon emissions. Based on the interactional mechanism
between carbon emissions and public expenditure, we make use of panel data of 29 provinces in China during
1998-2011 to construct the simultaneous equation model, exploring the relationship among carbon emissions,
economic growth and public expenditure. The results show that government public expenditure has a negative
direct effect on per capita carbon emission, which could hinder emission abatement. Further it could operate
through impacting on per capita income to have indirect effect at different stages of economic development. The
strength and direction of the indirect effect are closely related to income level. Moreover the total effects of
government public expenditure on carbon emissions follow the patterns of positive indirect effects at the mean
income level, which means that public expenditure could not reduce carbon emissions at all. Furthermore the
two turningpoint of the invertedNshaped curve is 720 and 271 445 RMB, respectively. All the provinces are
situating at the rise phase of the invertedNshaped curve. The increasing of per income leads to the carbon
emissions, and its a long time to get through the turningpoint. In addition, per capital, trade liberalization and
industrial structure have positive effects on carbon emissions, which mean it would aggravate the carbon
emissions. While the enhancement of education and population would increase peoples requirement of the
quality of environment in some extent and slow down the speed of carbon emissions. Therefore, it is urgent to
implement different public expenditure policies to achieve the coordinated development between economic
growth and environmental protection in different regions.
Key words public expenditure; economic growth; carbon emissions; simultaneous equation model
[37]刘生龙,胡鞍钢. 基础设施的外部性在中国的检验:1988-2007[J]. 经济研究,2010,(3):4-15. [Liu Shenglong, Hu Angang. Test on the Externality of Infrastructure in China: 1988-2007 [J]. Economic Research Journal, 2010, (3):4-15.]
[38]Grossman G M, Krueger A B. Economic Growth and the Environment [J]. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1995, 110(2): 353-377.
Exploring the Impacts of Government Public Expenditure on Carbon Emissions in China:
An Empirical Analysis Based on Panel Simultaneous Equation Model
HU Zongyi ZHU Li TANG Liwei
(School of Finance and Statistics, Hunan University, Changsha Hunan 410079,China)
Abstract
Under the background of energysaving and emission reduction, China has enforced the
environmental public expenditure on industry with carbon emissions. Based on the interactional mechanism
between carbon emissions and public expenditure, we make use of panel data of 29 provinces in China during
1998-2011 to construct the simultaneous equation model, exploring the relationship among carbon emissions,
economic growth and public expenditure. The results show that government public expenditure has a negative
direct effect on per capita carbon emission, which could hinder emission abatement. Further it could operate
through impacting on per capita income to have indirect effect at different stages of economic development. The
strength and direction of the indirect effect are closely related to income level. Moreover the total effects of
government public expenditure on carbon emissions follow the patterns of positive indirect effects at the mean
income level, which means that public expenditure could not reduce carbon emissions at all. Furthermore the
two turningpoint of the invertedNshaped curve is 720 and 271 445 RMB, respectively. All the provinces are
situating at the rise phase of the invertedNshaped curve. The increasing of per income leads to the carbon
emissions, and its a long time to get through the turningpoint. In addition, per capital, trade liberalization and
industrial structure have positive effects on carbon emissions, which mean it would aggravate the carbon
emissions. While the enhancement of education and population would increase peoples requirement of the
quality of environment in some extent and slow down the speed of carbon emissions. Therefore, it is urgent to
implement different public expenditure policies to achieve the coordinated development between economic
growth and environmental protection in different regions.
Key words public expenditure; economic growth; carbon emissions; simultaneous equation model