基于案例分析的后工业景观改造的规划设计理论

撰文 （葡萄牙）路易斯 · 劳瑞斯 翻译 陈美兰 狄帆 校对 杨云峰

1 简介——后工业景观现状

风景园林设计关注的重点从单一孤立的对象设计转变为更大范围的城市形象设计，从而增加了所设想的干预措施的影响，强调创建风景园林理论本体的重要性，提供一个可从中获得行动对策的结构。在此框架下，理论思考和讨论已被确定为振兴风景园林和城市设计的跨文化交流的一个重要问题。此外，事实上，风景园林是不断变化的（Jinyan,Xiangzheng and Tianxiang，2003；Pinto-Correia,D' Abreu and Oliveira, 2001)，是复杂的相互作用的自然过程的结果，并且计划内或计划外的人为活动加剧了这种情况。然而，这种持续的景观改造——考虑的不仅仅是后工业项目——已经引起全球的关注（Czerniak, 2006;Musacchio, et al., 2005;and Spirn, 1998），因为有必要重新考虑景观和环境保护。这尤其适用于那些以前开发的而现在处于废弃或未充分利用的场地。事实上，政府和民众必须意识到：重建“棕地”的需求迫切而紧要，赋予它们新的生机，营造一个更加可持续的城市环境，而不是单纯地去消费绿地。（De Sousa, 2003; Panagopoulos and Loures, 2007; and Portney, 2003）。

这些土地改造方法的实用性和普及性受到越来越多的认可，正如里德（Reed ,2005）提到的“近年来几乎每一个重要的新的园林设计基于一块废弃或退化的土地，并在其上进行彻底改造或再生利用，如同后工业时代的城市改造和重新界定其户外空间”。因此，一些问题出现了，譬如：应该如何处理这些景观？这些区域未来可能有什么作用？是什么使得这些空间未能充分利用？什么阻碍了这些景观改造？谁来负责改造？谁最有资格去做？这是一个专业的努力过程。

图01 美国芝加哥千禧公园——从西尔斯大厦鸟瞰。Fig.01 Millennium Park, Chicago-USA- view from Sears Tower.Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

图02 加拿大多伦多砖厂，环境改造和工业遗产保护齐头并进。Fig.02 Brick Works, Toronto-Canada. Environmental restoration and industrial heritage protection were considered at the same level.Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

为此，需要新的方法和框架。在“看似老气横秋的景观已经好奇地回到时尚”（Corner, 2006）的时期，迫切需要重塑后工业景观改造的方式，这不仅是考虑到环境问题，而且是历史和文化价值，是经济机会和社会需要。这个受到日益关注的起源可以追溯到工业成为城市转型主角之一的那个时期（Rossi, 1982）。

工业全球化对世界各地工业地区产生了深远的影响，出现了一些废弃的或是未充分利用的后工业景观（Antrop, 2000a），降低了发展潜力和生活质量（Handley, 1996）。在这种情况下，加上城市发展以及随着人口集中在城市地区（Antrop, 2000b），风景园林师和其它规划专家面临着巨大的挑战：如何对那些面临着新兴管理模式的后工业景观的未来进行规划？——社区、城市和地区必须适应经济发展和人口增长，同时保持和加强社区精神、场所意识和物理环境——问题的答案远非那么简单，但是后工业场地的再利用而不是开辟新的场地来发展多功能景观， 这本身就成为实现目标的一种可能性（Loures and Panagopoulos, 2007）。

图03 德国北杜伊斯堡公园。Fig.03 Duisburg-Nord Park, Germany. Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

图04 荷兰阿姆斯特丹西煤气厂公园。Fig.04 Westergasfabriek, Amsterdam-The Netherlands. Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

工业污染造成这些城市区域经济衰退、环境退化和社会困境，这一事实清晰表明，项目改造必须能够重新定义这些景观，以社区为基础，跨学科行动，在社会、经济和生态目标的基础上集成多功能、长期的解决方案，正如世界上多个国家所发生的那样（图01-04）。

2 方法/预想的设计框架

众所皆知，城市规划和开放空间保护是同一过程的不同部分，保护开放空间最有效的方式是有效地控制和管理城市的发展（Bengston, Fletcher and Nelson, 2004）。就这方面而言，土地改造政策、策略和方法被认为是控制城市容量、促进城市改建和复兴的重要工具（Adams and Watkins, 2002; Urban Land Institute, 2004; Willem, 2009）。

然而，他们整合的这些贡献和原则并不能充分地评价后工业土地改造成效。但是，随着城市扩张日益凸显的土地问题涵盖了广泛的社会、经济和环境层面，这个方法可能会被认为是解决城市扩张的一个有效方法（Bengston, Fletcher and Nelson, 2004; Brueckner,2000; and Johnson, 2001）。

纵观过去十多年中，众多研究员和学者都置身于创造更好的景观改造理论中，这些通常由设计师的主观意志所决定，而这又是其中的缺陷所在。由此，新的框架和方法是必需的。

然而，这些方法在研究中需要应用到多种方式，包括定量和定性的策略，其中最好的不是线性方法，而是根据需要多次进行问题、原则和信息的循环论证。

就这方面而言，经验学习被认为是重建城市的一个有效工具。本文提出的方法（图05）主要分为两部分：案例研究（开发项目——学习经验）和实例研究（场地具体性质和独特性）。

由此，可感知的案例研究和后工业景观改造最佳实践案例的分析构成了该框架的基础。

对于这种类型的分析，尹（1994年）在其著作《案例研究——设计与方法》（Case Study Research: Design and Methods）中提出了5种研究策略（虽然存在其它几种策略）：实验、调查、档案分析、历史和案例研究。

然而，案例研究法则被一些学者认为是非常重要的研究策略（Yin, 1994; Agranoff and Beryl, 1991; George, 1979; and Lucas, 1974），不仅可以在类似案例研究中进行分析和比较，而且发展了系统的分析，大大降低了分析者的主观成分。

这些本质特征使得该方法适用于各个知识领域中，如医学研究、社会学、工程、规划、建筑和风景园林中。再者，据弗朗西斯（Francis ，1999 & 2001年）所言，这个方法是研究和分析现有项目非常有用的工具，是解决特定问题和设计限制，以及应遵循或避免何种策略的方式。

图05 案例研究方法示意图Fig.05 Proposed methodological scheme.

应用该方法能够创建一套后工业景观改造规划设计原则，可以将特定理论基础的创建广而告之，以提高类似重建计划的质量。即通过成功的后工业改造项目中所应用的实际原则进行研究分析，以此创建一套原则将所创建的具体设计理论进行推广应用。

3 从理论到实践——简要概述

就前面所述的方法而言，研究区域的选择构成了本研究的重要组成部分，代表了目前研究成果中很重要的一个方面。从这点上来看，“最佳实践”的案例选择（与实践案例的研究区域的定义一样）应当考虑一套预先确定的限制因素。关于选择“最佳实践”的案例，这一过程限定于：在设定项目进度和经济条件下，尽可能多地收集和分析后工业用地的改造项目。从这个意义上说，在整个调查过程中，应将尽可能多的工业用地转型案例研究加以确认。项目确定后，有必要先处理数据的可用性，然后对获取、收集并使用这些数据的可能性进行核实。考虑到实践研究领域的特点，如果认为这些必要的信息和案例与该研究有关，那么应将该项目纳入其中。

如果所处理的案例研究的数量和规模巨大，为了便于审查管理，其分析应该在几个方面受到限制。首先，研究不应该仅把焦点放在那些与实际研究区域有着高度相似性的后工业土地的改造项目，也要考虑预先设计的目标/对象，以及针对实际研究区域所设定的分析。其次，选定的项目应遵守一套原则，包括：(1)可转换性或与研究区域（后工业土地转换）有关联性，不仅要考虑重建过程中设计策略的具体原则和框架，还要考虑项目的规模、社会多样性、文化意义以及影响力；(2)委托至少一个相关的专家直接参与项目（即设计师或项目协调员），这样，通过案例研究过程中的描述和分析所推测出的观点和结论，无论是所采用的设计策略还是所提出的解决方案、建设方案、项目计划，尤其是规划设计原则，都可能由一个熟知该项目的专家加以批准确认；(3) 项目实施——项目应实施或部分实施（国际竞赛中产生的多次设计方案都是趋向于图像学研究，有时甚至是不可持续难以实现的）；(4) 实地考察——案例研究分析的负责人应该尽可能多地，至少不低于一次地进行现场考察，通过对使用者的正式访问来分析人们对空间功能的使用方式。

即使在任何过程中都存在难以确定相对重要性的价值判断，这个方法中涉及的这些原则，对所做的评估具有一定程度的客观性和透明性，由此得以选择更能反应研究目标的案例。

然而，鉴于提出的方法论体系包括多个案例的研究分析，因此必须对所有研究制定一个计划。从这个意义上看，一个典型的计划应根据同一作者结合下列部分：案例研究项目的概述，场地程序，案例研究的问题和案例研究报告指南。而每个案例研究的后续方面应进行调查分析以下内容：项目位置，设计团队，项目类型及其用途，项目规模，项目背景或历史的简介，项目的意义及其独特性，目标，规划设计策略，经验教训以及项目局限性。

在所选取的案例研究进行分析之后，将按照上述计划对重建计划中的规划设计原则作一个探试性定义，其方法则类似于乔恩·朗（Jon Lang）在1994年提出的城市规划标准理论。各项规划设计原则经鉴定后将根据文献表达的思想和定义进行描述。只要有可能，这个定义应随时与制定该原则的项目设计团队进行校准，就各原则的定义和目标方面获得更多精确的客观的信息。

此外，事实上，规划设计领域的理论发展通常需要由经验丰富的从业者（他们通常是供职于规划设计事务所，这些事务所由于太忙而无法发表或分享他们的知识）对实际项目进行评估，即描述改造项目中有效的规划设计原则，阐释高效的景观配置中有用的规范理论，并说明成功的改造项目中宝贵的规划设计流程（Burley, 2001）。这样的评估降低了理论的发展与传播能力。再者，即使文献中能够找到大量的案例研究和最佳的实践案例，往往是难以处理的或未能将问题集中在那些可能影响或预示理论发展的层面上。从这点上看，后工业用地转型的案例研究是分析其重建的设计原则和策略，针对新的规划设计规范理论的定义制定一个相关的框架，使之得以在一定程度上降低城市规划设计领域理论与实践发展中目前存在的差异性。

由此，在调研期间，根据弗朗西斯（Francis, 1999）提出的方法识别、处理和分析数个案例研究，以确定一套能够展现后工业土地转型具体理论的规划设计原则。该方法能够鉴定后工业景观改造规划设计原则，展现具体规范理论以作为类似重建计划的基础。

4 案例研究分析

案例研究被认为是介绍和分析特定项目的一个非常重要的策略和熟练的工具（Wang and Burley, 2008; Francis, 1999; Agranoff and Beryl 1991; George, 1979），包括详实的系统的审查过程，以及为展现项目未来的实践、政策、理论和教育而做的决策和成果（Francis, 1999），并且能将类似的案例进行分析和比较。

该方法已经成功应用于各个知识领域中，如医学、社会学、土木工程、规划、建筑和风景园林中。而且，它是一个非常有用的工具，用作某一设计问题的解决方式，应当遵循或避免的设计策略（Francis, 2001 and 1999）。案例研究是实用信息的来源，学习实例的有效方式，解决问题的技能以及有用的评价策略。

此外，这些方法对于解释甚至预测与实践相关的理论也非常有用。在这种情况下，多案例研究着眼于那些有助于了解的概括性的经验或原则（Francis, 1999）。多案例研究的证据被普遍认为是强有力的，其原因的研究则被认为更加强大（Yin, 1994）。然而，多案例研究分析需要大量的资源和时间。

事实上，该方法运用多种研究方法（实验、半实验、历史、故事/文档，以及综合方法）、数据和证据的来源，构成研究过程的强项之一（Lube, 2003; Francis, 1999），使研究人员有机会反复推敲数据以加强研究成果和结论，建立理论，产生新理论，争论或挑战理论，解释情况或现象等等（Soy, 1997），以此增强研究的有效性和可信度。

此外，正如穆东（2007, p.364）所言：“虽然研究往往与独立的信息及特定的现象相关，但可以预期的是城市设计研究将产生规范性层面的信息并最终帮助设计”，为今后的设计提出建议。

综上所述，没有比各自实践更重要的理论（Demo, 1996），案例研究被认为是很有帮助的，假设如前面提过的并不总是用于客观实际中，这种研究方法对于新理论的发展仍具有重要作用。

4.1 案例研究的确定

考虑到缺乏后工业重建的共同理论，以及客观地收集、分析和组织尽可能多的后工业土地改造项目信息，介于目前研究的局限性，通过多种研究技术挑选出位于世界各地的346个后工业土地改造项目（图06）。

4.2 案例研究的分析

确定346个土地改造项目后，首先必须明确项目数据的可用性，其次是验证数据查阅、收集和使用的可能性。如果必要的信息可用，且案例与目前的研究相关，那么就对这个项目进行处理：描述其使用方法，应用的设计策略，重建过程中的经验教训，以及设计师改造后工业遗迹的方式，解决问题并展望重建的成效（图07）。

根据这些程序选择出世界各地共139个后工业土地改造案例研究。为了理解和评估后工业景观改造和城市设计之间错综复杂的关系，考虑在有效的理论分析体系中建立一个详细分析的子集，其代表了工业遗产保护的成功案例，公众参与，作为城市再生催化剂的多功能改造，以及对文化艺术活动和设施建设有极大促进作用的经济发展。

以下选择6个案例研究进行分析。根据地理位置将这些案例研究分为两组：一组位于欧洲，另一组位于北美。这个分组是在调查期间，经过案例研究选择审核的结果，除了考虑项目信息的质量，还考虑了信息的可用性和可达性。也就是说，它并不意味着一组中不能选择其他项目，而是所选择的这些项目更适合①。

4.2.1 欧洲案例

欧洲范围内选定的项目有：葡萄牙特茹河和特兰考河公园。

葡萄牙特茹河和特兰考河公园

设计团队：PROAP事务所，哈格里夫斯事务所（顾问）

类型/用途：城市公园

规模：90hm2

预算：约1 850万欧元

项目简介：坐落在里斯本东部地区，特茹河和特兰考河的交汇处，公园由此得名。该区域土地废弃、环境退化，是葡萄牙后工业景观改造项目中最典型的案例。成为公园之前，场地作为多种工业用途就像一个垃圾填埋场、废料场、污水处理厂和许多废弃的工业建筑物（Craveiro, 2003; and Spagna,2002）。所有这些工业设施均加重了景观污染程度，是里斯本污染最严重的区域之一（Castel-Branco, 1998）。这种高污染和明显退化的情况，加上临近的塔霍河口自然保护区，以及开展第98届世界博览会的意图，构成了对这个特定区域进行干预的决定性理由。

公园约90hm2，无论是在场地上还是主题上都和世界博览园有联系。世界博览园占地340hm2，是自成一体的城市中心，有住宅、商店、交通基础设施、停车场和公园，能够重新建立城市与河流之间的联系，同时有助于界定城市的整体性（Comeau, 2009）。该计划呼吁创造一个有吸引力的公共绿地，配以新的休闲文化，为城市房地产开发创造需求（Walker and Castel-Branco, 1998, p.46）。从这个意义上而言，针对受破坏环境的修复所提出的设计将把场地变为大里斯本地区内一个新的景点（Comeau, 2009）。

随着世博会博览园的兴建而确定城市发展项目中的主要目标——例如环境改造和城市复兴——这些项目旨在建立一个新的城市中心，拥有教育、文化和休闲活动，每年能够吸引成千上万人，提供就业岗位，创造财富，改善生活质量（Craveiro, 2003）。从这一点上，引入市民需求是项目的重要任务。通过广泛研究确定该区域内潜在的商业者和居住者，从而提出区域发展策略（Comeau,2009）。

图06 案例研究的地理分布——相似位置的案例研究只表示为单一红点。Fig.06-Geographic distribution of the identified case studies-Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved. Note that case studies with similar location were represented by a single red dot.

图07 案例研究在各大洲的地理分布Fig.07 Geographic distribution by continent of the addressed case studies.

公园的设计策略考虑发展多功能项目，在一定程度上是环境教育的传统与娱乐设施综合作用的结果（Lambertini, 2006）。实际上，该设计（图08）将之前的废弃场地变为一个多功能景观点，集休闲、娱乐和环境教育为一体。

本项目突出一个事实，即通过促进改变土地利用模式和土地价值，开发区域土地专业化和新的基础设施，可以将废弃的景观（如特茹河和特兰考河公园）变为越来越有吸引力的场地（Blokhuis and Schaefer, 2007）。事实上，公园的本质是将城市中污染最严重、最令人厌恶的的区域变为最具吸引力的区域之一。正如安德烈森（Andresen, 1998a,p.8）所述“……一个混乱的地方，一个可怕的地方”，当与之前的场地特性进行对比分析时，方能凸显场地的实质性转变。

然而，即使特茹河和特兰考河公园项目被认为是一个“……葡萄牙的试点项目，在全体居民的见证下从垃圾场和城市废弃地摇身一变成为绿色生活区”（Walker and Castel-Branco, 1998, p.55），该项目从一开始就存在着诸多限制。

4.2.2 北美案例

北美范围内选定的项目有：美国凯霍加河流域蜿蜒的纤道小径和加拿大多伦多顿河河谷砖瓦厂。

4.2.2.1 美国俄亥俄州克利夫兰，凯霍加河流域蜿蜒的纤道小径——一个多功能遗产连接器

设计团队/规划委员会：委员：蒂姆·麦考马克，吉米·迪莫拉和彼得·琼斯，规划设计总监：克里斯·罗奈因。

类型/用途：多功能/文化小径

规模：长度9.7km；小径廊道面积16.2hm2；廊道连接的潜在公园面积81 hm2。

预算：4 781万美元，约3 915万欧元。

项目简介：该项目除了用于交通和娱乐的目的外，最重要的是广泛的环境再生策略不仅适用于小径本身同时也适用于周边景观（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002）。鉴于长期以来城市发展对策主要是实现更好的城市形态以制造生产和便于货物运输的水路、铁路和公路，因此这个项目的意义在于一定程度上创造重新关注自然河谷的机会（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002）。此外，北凯霍加河谷有着丰富的文化和历史资源，代表着过去的时代和现在的社区，为探索研究这些资源提供机会（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 1999），为如何进行区域重建以及工业遗产如何成为城市复兴的媒介树立一个典范。

图08 特茹河和特兰考河公园总平面图，作者根据谷歌地图（2010年）和PROAP（2008年）绘制而成。Fig.08 Parque do Tejo e do Trancão, programmaticareas.Developed by Author.Used sources: Google Maps (2010); and PROAP (2008) – Used by permission of Luís Loures, all rights reserved.

该方案独树一帜，就土地改造、工业遗产和环境质量作出精确的概念，并挖掘出河谷最佳的自然特性，也就是说，河流边缘及其长条形景色有益于从山坡俯瞰山谷和中心城区天际线（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002）。考虑到公众参与和场地多功能性，该项目的开发是凸显凯霍加河谷潜力的契机，使之具有良好环境和审美价值，与整体区域相统一，解决工业衰退和人口减少等内在问题。

所应用的设计策略是基于克利夫兰历史变革的创新精神，从运输与工业的黄金时期到持续的公私伙伴关系时期，后工业滨水区的复兴一直延伸至市中心和多个传统街区（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002）。

此外，通过整合城市综合的、可持续的发展战略，所选的方法让城市得以解决社会文化及经济问题，创造价值，提升公民生活质量（Cleveland Land Lab, 2008）。

包括步道及其涵盖的区域内的现有资产和条件，该项目根据不同层面的可行性和影响力开发了多条可选择的路线（Baker, 2009;and Kinsley et al. 2006），并考虑该决议的责任和污染问题以符合美国环保署关于康乐用途的清理标准。

除了公认的环境和美观效果，划定的走廊也有意发展地区社会经济和文化，因此其设计创造大量的娱乐、文化和经济机会，如图09（可以步行，骑自行车，慢跑，徒步远足），这将有助于创造就业机会，促进旅游发展，同时城市中野生生物廊道的发展将提升生物多样性（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 1992）。

该项目表明，人们现在比以往任何时候都更加意识到一个地方是建立在它过去的基础上，其历史轮廓则印刻在人们的生活中。由此，新的方法应该为后工业景观提供开辟更多文化用途的机会。

以现有工业遗产为特征的凯霍加河流域纤道小径的开发使得克利夫兰大都市当局与私营开发商、当地政府和社区组织进行合作，将几块空置、废弃的场地变废为宝。事实上，随着其它一些后工业土地改造项目的开发，社区参与增加人们的自豪感与归属感，使得项目更易被接受。然而，这个项目的主要限制在一定程度上也与社区参与有关。因为信息主要来源于公众听证会和其它会议，实地调查期间获得的信息说明仅仅是一些当地居民所描述的，不太恰当。而且步道未能妥当有效地将一些重要的地标展现出来。总的来看，这个项目强调：即使废弃的工业景观常常被视为荒废和衰退的象征，在特定情况下，它们可能是城市新生的催化剂，小规模的项目往往具有巨大的影响力，不仅仅是提高景观美学，当地生态环境和土地价值等方面。

图09 凯霍加河流域复兴区域，作者根据2010年城市规划委员会(City Planning Commission, 2010;)和2002年凯霍加县规划委员会（Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 2002）的相关资料绘制而成。Fig.09 Cuyahoga river valley redevelopment areas. Developed by Author. Used sources: City Planning Commission, 2010; and Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 2002.

4 .2.2.2 加拿大多伦多顿河河谷砖瓦厂

设计团队：迈克尔·霍克，霍克斯坦布里林地有限公司

类型/用途：生态公园

规模：16.5hm2

预算：350万美元，约280万欧元

图10 顿河河谷砖瓦厂改造项目，作者根据谷歌地图（2010年）和消失的河流小径（2008年）绘制而成。Fig.10 Don Valley Brick Works Program- Developed by Author.Used sources: Google maps (2010); and Lost River Walks (2008)

项目背景简介：通过展示生态修复、水质改善、生物栖息地、休闲和娱乐机会等多种功能同时使用，此重建项目表明：如果设计得当，休闲区域兼具暴雨水管理、栖息地恢复和水质改善的用途。从这方面而言，顿河河谷砖瓦厂改造项目有助于改变人们对城市开放空间的看法和期望，改变对公园的固有看法，从单一的草坪、灌木和树木转变为各种野生动植物栖息地与休闲娱乐机会相融合的景观。

此外，顿河河谷已经失去了绝大部分的沼泽地，这是19世纪强烈的工业化进程以及随后20世纪日渐城市化进程造成的结果，使得顿河的多条支流渠化槽化（City of Toronto,200）。这个事实强调了生态恢复和环境教育的重要意义。鉴于不可避免地依赖于人类活动和自然过程，此设计提出构建一个“适当的方式来理解遗产作为连续动态的更新过程”（Hough, 2004, p.52）。

再者，以生态为基础的工业景观改造表明，通过自然过程而不是试图控制它们来进行重建，往往会获得更大的惊喜。此设计的独特之处很快得到认可，这从它多次获得奖项可以证明（Foster, 2005）。

该设计方案的核心目标是修复顿河流域，同时促进遗产与环境恢复的联系条件并加强修复过程，曾经造成河谷退化的工业现在已然成为生态修复的一部分内容。将原工业建筑纳入设计策略中尽管很有限，但它们却是一个关键因素，因为历史是一个学习过去以满足当前需要的动态变化和适应过程（Hough, 2004）。正如福斯特（Foster, 2005）指出，即使城市不愿意强调现有的工业遗产，但富有远见卓识的风景园林师将它看作一项重要的资产，连接场地与城市，代表了工业变革和技术改造。

虽然传统上对于棕色地带的场地修复主要关注其经济层面，但顿河河谷砖瓦厂改造项目则很好平衡了经济效益与生态效益之间的关系，同时为多伦多居民提供额外的绿色空间（Foster, 2005）。

随着20世纪90年代中期由区域环境保护局开展的修复顿河河谷砖瓦厂及其采石场工程，迈克尔·霍克提出了基于生态的设计理念，将对多伦多自然和文化历史具有重大意义的工业遗产（Hough, 2004），变为富有吸引力和创意的生态设计，以现存的文化和自然遗产及其与周围城市环境的关系为基础，为生态设计和可持续发展战略提供很好的案例（Lister, 2007）。

而且，正如福斯特（Foster, 2005, p.333）所言“……场地在很多方面具有良好的设计特点，该设计提出生态修复和环境美学的综合理论，结合了风景园林和景观生态学领域的思想家和实践者所倡导的原则”。与上述针对彼得·拉茨设计的北杜伊斯堡公园的案例分析不同，“河谷砖瓦厂使公园的概念超越了自然保护的角度， 变成一个学习景观的领域以及讲授可持续性的榜样”（Lister, 2007,p.52）。就这点而言，设计策略以遗产和环境恢复二者结合为核心目标，基于相关的主题：“采石场北坡的具有国际性重大意义的地质构造揭示了该区域在地质时期的气候变化以及曾经生活于此的动物；湿地花园为昆虫、鱼类和鸟类提供栖息地，恢复曾经干涸、流入顿河的小溪的水质，从而促进顿河流域的更新”（Hough, 2004, p.52）。

此项目开发被视为一个持续不断地更新和治疗的过程，是对条件变化的一种应对和适应。该项目（图10）考虑到几个关键原则，不仅基于生物、社会、经济和政治问题，而且基于对城市中自然的深刻理解，将其作为学习社区权利与行动经验的一部分（Hough,2004）。设计策略作为一个适应性和包容性的学习过程，其制定应考虑长期可行性、生态恢复以及我们所处的自然和当代景观。

表01 六个案例研究分析的设计原则——1 北杜伊斯堡公园；2 特茹河和特兰考河公园；3荷兰西煤气厂公园；4 克利夫兰凯霍加河河谷；5顿河砖瓦厂；6千禧公园

这个土地改造项目表明，无论目标如何，对于生态修复、文化和自然历史符号的保护，顿河河谷砖瓦厂项目改造策略是一个优秀的案例研究。

4.2.3 确定规划设计原则

考虑到6个分析案例研究的不同数据来源和信息（比如文献回顾，采访关键参与者和场地使用者），确定了37个设计原则，如表1所示（其中一些适用于各种案例研究分析）。然而，即使下列原则和定义是经过深思熟虑的过程产生的，也未能涵盖所有的或最后的结果。但是，这个设计工具可以在设计过程中为设计师提供帮助，并为将来后工业改造建议奠定基础（表01）。

5 后记

人们日益认识到，后工业景观重新融入城市文脉，代表着社会不同层次上的宝贵资源，有助于提升景观的价值和宜居性，提高生活质量，同时转移现存的城区的增长。这种方法降低杂乱无序的扩展并恢复了自然过程及其功能。由此，后工业重建被当作可持续发展策略的一种熟练的工具。就这点而言，除了便于识别后工业重建项目中所应用的一系列规划设计原则外，目前的研究在后工业改造的理论与实践两方面均获得共识。

不过，即使未充分利用地区的再开发可能作为一种可行的、处理日益城市化进程的方式，仍然存在一个疑问：这些场地该以何种方式来进行重建。就这点而言，土地利用总体规划的方法应在积极主动的政策和重新活跃再生之间，在立法、行政和教育政策之间，以及城市生活改造过程中公民、机构和市场之间确定适当的平衡。在这种情况下，如果在规划过程中适当的结合后工业景观，则有可能成为城市发展的驱动力，营造一个积极的形象，吸引投资者和旅游者。

这次调查显示，被遗弃的后工业景观的重建应遵循设计原则，促进可持续发展，减少对环境的负面影响，并促进经济繁荣，提高社会包容性和生活质量。设计和管理之间是环环相扣的关系，是未来城市设计进程和战略中一个非常重要的特性。然而，更深入的重建过程分析表明在今天的规划活动中普遍缺乏“战略眼光”。在清醒地反省这种公认的缺乏社会远景意识中，设想的框架能够寻求足够的时间来解决开发问题，在不远的将来，后工业土地改造必然会成为一种城市景观。

然而，研究表明，在整个过去的几十年，即使一些研究人员和学者致力于研究发展战略和框架，以创造更好的景观改造项目，但重建计划仍然倾向于过分主观的，直接依赖于设计师的决心和意图。就这方面而言，方法体系的应用被认为是一个熟练的工具来降低设计的主观性，在不同知识领域创建一个共同点便于沟通，提高未来重建计划的质量。

此外，值得注意的是，所使用的方法允许创建一组规划设计原则与那些尊重场地及其背景环境的景观相连接；文章中涉及到的应用于后工业景观改造的设计原则正好代表了规划设计的可能性，可能有助于提高可持续发展的设计。由此，应提出其他几个规划方案。再者，应注意这些原则的应用，除了积极的影响，并不是任何项目成功的必要条件。一旦没有万全之策就必须执行场地及其背景研究，分析与综合。 且不论重建计划中规划设计原则的实用性，场地的特殊性和设计师的创造力将继续成为整体设计过程最关键的元素。

综上所述，所提出的方法将提升后工业土地改造项目的质量，增加景观特色，促进多功能有弹性的景观创造，能够接纳变化，提升生活质量。

6 致谢

笔者在此要感谢葡萄牙阿尔加维大学空间和组织动力学中心的财政支持。

注释：

①作者在原文中介绍了6个案例分析，分别是德国北杜伊斯堡公园、葡萄牙特茹河和特兰考河公园、荷兰西煤气厂公园、美国凯霍加河流域蜿蜒的纤道小径、加拿大多伦多顿河河谷砖瓦厂和美国芝加哥千禧公园，限于篇幅，译者删去了国内读者熟悉的德国北杜伊斯堡公园、荷兰西煤气厂公园、美国芝加哥千禧公园3个案例，但在总结和各表格仍保留3个案例的分析和数据。

②本文所有图片版权归路易斯·劳瑞斯所有，并经其许可使用。

1 Introduction-the Status of the Postindustrial Landscape

The shift of emphasis from the design of single and isolated objects to the design of larger urban surfaces, thus increasing the impact of the envisioned interventions, highlighted the need to create an original body of landscape architecture theory, providing a structure based on specific principles from which prescriptions for action may be drawn. Under this framework, theoretical reflection and discussion have been identified as an important issue in revitalizing crosscultural exchange in landscape architecture and urban design. Additionally, the fact, landscape is continuously changing (Jinyan, Xiangzheng and Tianxiang, 2003; and Pinto-Correia, D' Abreu and Oliveira, 2001) as a result of complex and interacting natural processes coupled with planned and unplanned actions by man enlarge this scenario.However, this ongoing landscape transformationconsidering not only post-industrial ones-has raised global concerns (Czerniak, 2006; Musacchio, et al.,2005;and Spirn, 1998), as it is the need to rethink landscape and protect the environment. This is especially true for previously developed areas that are now abandoned or underused. In fact, instead of consuming green lands, public and private representatives need to acknowledge that it is imperious to redevelop "brown lands", giving them a new life, in order to achieve a more sustainable urban setting (De Sousa, 2003; Panagopoulos and Loures, 2007; and Portney, 2003).

The relevance and popularity of these land transformation approaches are increasingly recognized, and as referred by Reed (2005, p.15)"nearly every significant new landscape designed in recent years occupies a site that has been reinvented and reclaimed from obsolescence or degradation,as cities in post-industrial era remake and redefine their outdoor spaces". Consequently questions such as: What should be done with these landscapes?Which functions might these areas acquire in the future? What makes these spaces underutilized?What obstacles keep these landscapes from being transformed? Who is responsible for transforming them? Who is best qualified to do it? Is this process a single profession endeavor? Among others,remain to be answered.

For this reason, new methodologies and frameworks are needed. In a period when "(…)that seemingly old-fashioned term landscape has curiously come back to vogue" (Corner, 2006), it is urgent to reinvent the way in which these postindustrial landscapes are transformed, considering not only environmental issues but also historic and cultural values, economic opportunities, and social needs. The origin of this growing concern may be traced from a period when industry, became one of the main protagonists in the transformation of the city (Rossi, 1982).

The globalization of industry had a profound effect on industrial areas all over the world, contributing to the appearance of several derelict and underused post-industrial landscapes(Antrop, 2000a) that contribute to reduce the development potential and the quality of life(Handley, 1996). This scenario, coupled with urban growth (urban population in the world was approximately 2.4 billion in 1995 number that is expected to duplicate at about the year 2025) and with the population concentration in urban areas(Antrop, 2000b), facelandscape architects and other planning specialists with a great challenge:How to plan the future of those post-industrial landscapes facing the "new" growth management paradigm?-Communities, cities and regions must accommodate economic development and population growth while sustaining and enhancing the spirit of the community, the sense of place,and the physical environment-the answer to this question is far from being simple, but the reuse of post-industrial sites, in order to develop multifunctional landscapes, instead of consuming new ones is seen as a great possibility to help achieving those goals (Loures and Panagopoulos,2007).

The fact that these urban areas became economically and environmentally degraded and socially distressed through industrial contamination(DoE,1991) make clear that redevelopment projects should enable the redefinition of these landscapes through community-based, interdisciplinary action that integrates multifunctional longer-term solutions based on social, economic and ecological objectives, as it has happened throughout several countries in the world (Fig.01-04).

2 Methodology| Envisioned Design Framework

As it has long been realized urban planning and open space preservation are part of the same process and the most effective way to protect open space is by effectively containing and managing urban growth (Bengston, Fletcher and Nelson,2004). In this regard, land transformation policies,strategies and methodologies have been considered an important tool for urban containment, fostering urban redevelopment and revitalization (Adams and Watkins, 2002; Urban Land Institute, 2004;Willem, 2009).

However, these contributions and the principles they integrate, have not been adequately assessed regarding post-industrial land transformation efforts.Still, this approach may be considered a proficient approach to address urban sprawl, increasingly viewed as significant and growing land-use problem that encompass a wide range of social, economic and environmental issues (Bengston, Fletcher and Nelson,2004; Brueckner, 2000; and Johnson, 2001).

Throughout the last decades several researchers and academics have been committed with the development of strategies that enable the creation of better landscape transformation projects, which are normally excessively subjective and dependent on the designer's determination, fact that is considered to be a limitation. For this reason new frameworks and methodologies are required.

However, these methodologies require the use of several methods throughout the research,including quantitative and qualitative strategies,which at their best are not linear methods but circle back upon issues, principles, and information, as many times as necessary (Wortham, 2007).

In this regard, considering the approach according to which, learning by experience is considered a proficient tool for urban redevelopment the proposed methodology (Fig.05) was divided in two main sections: case study research (developed projects-learning by experience) and practical case studies (site specific characteristics and uniqueness of the place).

As is perceptible case study research and the analysis of best-practice examples of post-industrial redevelopment constitute the basis of the proposed framework.

Regarding this type of analysis, Yin (1994)presented five research strategies (although acknowledging the existence of several others)on his book "Case Study Research-Design and Methods": experiment; survey; archival analysis;history and case study.

Nonetheless, the Case Study Research method is considered by several authors a very important research strategy (Yin, 1994; Agranoff and Beryl,1991; George, 1979; and Lucas, 1974), which allows not only the analysis and comparison among similar case studies, but also the development of a systemic analysis, where the subjective component is much smaller.

These intrinsic characteristics enable the use of this method in various fields of knowledge as it is the case of medical research, sociology, engineering,planning, architecture and landscape architecture.Furthermore, according to Francis (1999 and 2001) this method is a very useful tool to study and analyse existing projects and the way in which certain problems and design constrains were solved and which strategies should be followed or avoided.

The use of this method will enable the creation of a set of post-industrial landscape redevelopment planning and design principles that may inform the creation of a specific theoretical basis to increase the quality of similar redevelopment proposals, i.e.researching and analysing the practical principles applied in successful post-industrial landscape reclamation projects in order to create a set of principles that will inform the creation of specific design theory.

3 From Theory to Practice-brief Overview

Considering the afore-presented methodology the selection of study areas constitutes an essential component of the research, representing an important aspect to the accomplishment of the present study. In this regard, the selection of "bestpractice" case studies (as well as the definition of a practical case study area) should consider a set of predefined parameters. Regarding the selection of "best practice" case studies, the process was anchored in the collection and analysis of as much post-industrial land transformation projects as was possible within the boundaries set by schedule and economic constraints.In this sense, throughout the investigation as many post-industrial land transformation case studies as possible should be identified. After identifying the project it is necessary first to address the availability of data,and second to verify the possibility to access, collect and use that data. If the necessary information is available, and the case study considered relevant for the research, considering the characteristics of the practical study area, the project will be addressed.

If the number and magnitude of the addressed case studies is significantly high, in order to keep the review manageable, analysis should be limited in several ways. First, the research should focus not only on post-industrial land transformation projects which present higher similarity with the practical study area, but also that considered the pre-design goals | objectives, established throughout the analysis of the practical study area.Second, the selected projects should obey to a set of selection principles that included:(i) transferability and/or contextual relevance to the study area (postindustrial land transformation) considering not only the specific principles and frameworks of the design strategy used in the redevelopment process,but also size, social diversity, cultural relevance and impact of the project; (ii)the establishment of a direct contact at least with a specialist connected with the project (i.e. designer or project coordinator) is considered mandatory, so that the inferential ideas and conclusions presented during case study description and analysis, regarding not only the design strategy adopted, but also the presented solutions, the construction options,the program, and specially the planning and design principles used, could be confirmed by a specialist with precise and effective knowledge about the project;(iii) project implementation-the project should be implemented or partially implemented (several times the design solutions presented in international competitions tend to be increasingly iconographic and sometimes arguably unsustainable); and (iv) site visits- the site of the project should be visited by the person responsible for the analysis of the case study, whenever possible more than once, in order to analyze the way the space functions and how people use it, performing some formal interviews with the users.

Considering these principles and even if there is an inevitable value judgement in any process to ascertain relative importance, the method is considered to bring a degree of objectivity and transparency to the assessment, enabling the selection of the cases that respond better to research objectives.

Still, given that the proposed methodological framework comprises the analysis of multiplecase studies, it is essential to have a protocol for all studies. In this sense and still according to the same author a typical protocol should integrate the following sections: an overview of the case study project; field procedures; case study questions; and a guide for the case study report. Considering this information, for each case study the subsequent aspects should be investigated and analysed:location; design team; project typology and use;size; brief description of the project background |history; significance and uniqueness of the project;goals; program and design strategy; lessons learned and project limitations.

After the analysis of each of the selected case studies, following the aforementioned protocol the planning and design principles used in the redevelopment proposal will be heuristically defined, using an approach similar to the one proposed by Lang (1994) in order to identify normative theories in urban planning. After identification each planning and design principle will be described according to the ideas and definitions expressed in the literature. Whenever possible, this definition should be gauged with the design team of the project in which the principle was identified, in order to grant a more precise and objective information regarding the definition and the goals of each principle.

Additionally, the fact that theory development in planning and design arena, requires normally the evaluation of practical projects by experienced practitioners (which are normally imbedded within planning and design firms that are too busy to publish and share their knowledge) "describing effective planning and design principles for reclamation, explaining useful normative theories in creating efficient landscape configurations, and illustrating valuable planning and design processes to achieve reclamation success" (Burley, 2001),reduces both the capacity for theoretic development and dissemination. Furthermore, even if a lot of case studies and best practices examples can be found in literature, they are often poorly addressed and normally do not focus the issues that might influence and inform theory development. In this regard,the analysis of postindustrial land transformation case studies considering both design principles and strategies used in redevelopment, constitutes a relevant framework towards the definition of new design and planning normative theories, enabling somehow the reduction of the existing dissimilarity regarding theoretic and practical development in the field of urban planning and design.

In this regard, throughout this investigation several case studies were identified, addressed and analyzed considering the method presented by Francis (1999) in order to identify a set of planning and design principles that might inform the creation of a specific postindustrial land transformation theory. The use of this method will enable the identification of a set of post-industrial landscape redevelopment planning and design principles that may inform the creation of a specific normative theory that might serve as a basis for the redevelopment of similar proposals.

4 Analysed Case Studies

Consisting in "a well-documented and systematic examination of the process, decisionmaking and outcomes of a project that is undertaken for the purpose of informing future practice, policy, theory and/or education" (Francis,1999), case studies are considered to be a very important research strategy and a proficient tool to present and analyze specific projects (Wang and Burley, 2008; Francis, 1999; Agranoff and Beryl 1991; George, 1979), which enable the analysis and comparison among similar case studies.

This method has been applied, successfully,in various fields of knowledge as it is the case of medical research, sociology, engineering,planning, architecture and landscape architecture.Furthermore, it is a very useful tool to study the way in which certain design problems were solved and which strategies should be followed or avoided (Francis, 2001 and 1999). Case studies are considered a source of practical information, and an effective way to teach by example, of acquiring problem solving skills and of developing useful evaluation strategies.

Additionally they are also very useful to explain or even predict theory related to practice. In this case multiple case studies are looked at with an eye for generalizable lessons or principles that can advance knowledge (Francis, 1999). The evidence for multiple-case studies is generally considered stronger, reason why the research is considered more robust (Yin, 1994). However, multiple-case study analysis requires extensive resources and time.

The fact that this method uses a variety of research techniques (experimental, quasi-experimental, historical, storytelling | documentation as well as multi-method approaches) and sources of data and evidence constitutes one of the strengths of the process (Lube, 2003; and Francis, 1999), which enables researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order to strengthen the research findings and conclusions, to build upon theory, to produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation or phenomenon, etc. (Soy, 1997),increasing the validity and reliability of the research.

Additionally, as mentioned by Moudon (2007,p.364), "while research is usually associated with substantive information and with understanding specific phenomena, it is expected that research for urban design will yield information that has normative dimensions and that eventually helps design", proposing recommendations for future design.

In this sense, considering the premise according to which nothing is more important to theory than its respective practice (Demo, 1996),the use of case studies was considered to be very helpful, given that, as it was pointed out before,while not always used with this objective, case studies can play an important role in developing new theory.

4.1 Identifi ed Case Studies

Considering the lack of common theory regarding postindustrial redevelopment, and the objective to collect, analyze and organize as much information as possible about postindustrial land transformation projects,bearing in mind the limitations of the present research, 346 postindustrial land transformation case studies(Fig.06), located all over the world, were identified throughout the application of several research techniques.

4.2 Analyzed Case Studies

After identifying the 346 land transformation projects it was necessary first to address the availability of data regarding the project, and second to verify the possibility to access, collect and use that data. If the necessary information was available, and the case study was considered relevant for the present research, the project was addressed, describing the used approaches, the applied design strategies, lessons learned from such redevelopments and the ways in which designers have transformed postindustrial remnants, solving problems and envisioning new futures for these redevelopments (Fig.07).

Following these procedures 139 postindustrial land transformation case studies from all over the world were selected. In order to understand and evaluate the complex relationship between post-industrial landscape redevelopment and urban design, considering an effective analysis towards theory building, a detailed analysis of a subset that represented specific examples of successful industrial heritage protection, public participation and involvement and multifunctional redevelopment as catalysts of urban regeneration and economic development encouraging wider access to arts and cultural activity and facilities was selected.

In this regard six case studies were selected for analysis. These case studies were divided into two groups considering their geographic location: one composed by European projects and the other by North American projects. This division was created during the investigation, as a result of the case study selection process, which besides the acknowledge quality of the project, considered also information availability and accessibility, i.e. it does not mean that one could not have selected other projects, but rather that the selected projects were the ones that better fit the research.

4.2.1 European Precedents

Within Europe the selected projects was:Parque do Tejo e do Trancão in Portugal.

Parque do Tejo e do Trancão in Portugal

Design Team: PROAP Estudos e Projectos de Arquitectura Paisagista, Lda. + Hargreaves Associates (consultant)

Typology | Use: Urban Park

Size: 90 hectares

Budget: approximately 18.500.000 €

Project brief description:

Located at the oriental part of Lisbon, in an area marked by abandonment and environmental degradation at the confluence of two rivers from which it takes its name, "Parque do Tejo e do Trancão" is one of the most emblematic examples of post-industrial landscape transformation projects realized in Portugal. Before being a park, the site,was composed by several industrial structures like a landfill, scraps, a sewage treatment plant and many obsolete industrial buildings (Craveiro, 2003; and Spagna, 2002). All together these industrial facilities contributed to increase the contamination levels of this landscape, which before the intervention was considered one of the most polluted areas of Lisbon (Castel-Branco, 1998a). This scenario- high indexes of contamination and visible degradation-coupled with the proximity of the Natural Reserve of the estuary of Tagus and the intention to develop the world exposition Expo'98 constituted decisive arguments for the intervention in this specific area.

With approximated 90 hectares, the park is linked both physically and thematically with the Park Expo'98 which covering an area of 340 hectares was mentioned to be a self-contained urban center, with residences, stores, transportation infrastructure, parking facilities and parks, able to re-establishing the link between the city and the river, while contributing to define the city as a whole (Comeau, 2009). "The plan called for the creation of an attractive public green area, equipped for a new leisure culture that would create demand for the urban real-estate development" (Walker and Castel-Branco, 1998, p.46). In this sense,while regenerating a disturbed environment, the proposed design would transform the site into a new attraction within the greater Lisbon area(Comeau, 2009).

Following the main objectives defined in the urban development project established by "Parque EXPO, SA"-e.g. environmental requalification and urban revitalization-the proposed project aimed to develop a new urban centrality with educational,cultural and leisure activities capable of attracting millions of people yearly, while creating jobs,promoting wealth, and improving life's quality(Craveiro, 2003). In this regard the introduction of citizens' needs, identified through extensive studies regarding potential commercial and residential occupants of this area, within the redevelopment strategy proposed for the area was a significant objective of the project (Comeau, 2009).

The design strategy envisioned for the park results somehow from a synthesis between traditional and recreational facilities for environmental education, considering the development of a multifunctional program (Lambertini, 2006). In fact the proposed design (Fig.08) enabled the transformation of the former derelict site into a multifunctional landscape considering at the same level a place for leisure and recreation and environmental education.

This project highlights the fact that by promoting changes in land-use patterns and landvalues and by developing territorial specialization and new infrastructure, it is possible to turn derelict landscapes (as the one in which the "Parque do Tejo e do Trancão" was created) into increasingly attractive sites (Blokhuis and Schaefer, 2007). In fact the creation of the park was essential to convert one of the most polluted and repulsive areas of the city into one of the most attractive ones. This fact is even more relevant when analyzed under the lamps of the former characteristics of the site, which according to Andresen (1998a, p.8) was "(…) a place of chaos, a scary place".

However, even if the "Parque do Tejo e do Trancão" project was considered a "(…) pilot project in Portugal, one in which the population was to witness the transformation of a run-down area of rubbish and urban waste into a living green area" (Walker and Castel-Branco, 1998, p.55), it presented some limitations since the beginning.

4.2.2 North American Precedents

Within North America the selected projects were: Cuyahoga River Valley-Towpath trail extension in the USA; Don Valley Brickworks in Canada; and Millennium Park in the USA.

4.2.2.1 Cuyahoga valley, towpath trail extension-a multifunctional heritage connectorin Cleveland, Ohio-United States of America.

Design Team | Planning Commission:Commissioners: Tim McCormack, Jimmy Dimora,and Peter Jones; Planning Director: Chris Ronayne.

Typology | Use:Multifunctional|Cultural Trail

Size: Length-6 miles, approximately 9,7 km;Trail corridor area-16,2 hectares; Potential parkland associated with corridor-81 hectares.

Budget: 47.810.000$-approximately 39.150.000€

Project brief description: One of the most relevant aspects of this project, beyond its use for both transportation and recreation purposes is the broad environmental regeneration strategy applied not only in the path itself but also in the surrounding landscape (Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 2002). In fact, the significance of this project is somehow connected with the opportunity to refocus attention on the natural systems of the river valley, given that for a long period the development strategy for the city was based mainly in achieving the better urban configuration regarding manufacturing production and the movement of goods by water, rail, and road (Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002). Additionally, the fact that the North Cuyahoga Valley had an abundance of cultural and historic assets which represent times of the past and communities of the present provided an opportunity to explore these resources (Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 1999), creating an example of how this area could be redeveloped and of how industrial heritage could be used as medium for urban redevelopment.

This scenario enabled the development of a unique project considering refined concepts of land transformation, industrial heritage and environmental quality, exploring the best physical features of the valley, i.e. the river's edge and its vistas which take advantage from the hillside overlooking the valley and the downtown skyline(Cuyahoga County Planning Commission,2002). Considering public participation and multifunctionality the developed project was viewed an outstanding opportunity to highlight the potential of the Cuyahoga Valley as an asset with enough environmental and aesthetic qualities to unify the region, and to solve the problems inherent to industrial decline and population loss.

The applied design strategy was based in the innovative spirit that contributed to the evolution of Cleveland's history, from the golden transportation and industrial period to the ongoing public-private partnerships regarding the revitalization of the postindustrial waterfront extending to downtown Cleveland and several traditional neighborhoods(Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 2002).

Additionally, by integrating the development of a comprehensive sustainability strategy for the city, the selected approach enabled the city to tackle several socio-cultural and economic problems and to create value, increasing citizen's life quality(Cleveland Land Lab, 2008).

Including an inventory of existing assets and conditions within the area served by the path, the program was developed considering several route alternatives, their feasibility and impacts at different levels (Baker, 2009; and Kinsley et al. 2006),taking into account the resolution of liability and contamination problems in order to meet the EPA cleanup standards for recreational uses.

Besides the generally acknowledged environmental and aesthetic benefits, the delimitation of the corridor intended also to develop the region socio-economically and culturally, reason why it the design includes both the creation of numerous recreational, cultural and economic opportunities associated to a multifunction pass-fig.09 (where it is possible to walk, bicycle, jog, and hike), which will contribute to create jobs and promote touristic development,and the development of a wildlife corridor into the urban area that will emphasize biodiversity(Cuyahoga County Planning Commission, 1992).

This project revealed that now more than ever, it is increasingly recognized that a place is built on its past and that history has a high profile in people's lives. For this reason, new approaches should be aware of the opportunities that could be opened up for a more cultural use of post-industrial landscapes.

By highlighting the existing industrial heritage the development of the Towpath Trail enabled Cleveland's Metropolitan authorities to transform several vacant and abandoned properties from a liability into an asset through a partnership of private developers, local government, and community organizations. In fact, as it happens in several other postindustrial land transformation projects, community involvement enabled the creation of a sense of pride and belonging that increased the acceptance of the proposed projects.However, the main limitation identified in this project is somehow connected with community involvement, given that the way the information gathered during public hearings and meetings,was introduced in the delineation of the trail was according to some residents approached during site visits, not appropriate, once several important local landmarks were not properly served by the trail. Still, the overall opinion is that this project highlighted the fact that, even if derelict industrial landscapes are often viewed as a symbol of abandonment and decline, in particular situations they might represent the catalyst for the rebirth of any city, and that very often small-scale projects might have a great influence not only in enhancing landscape aesthetics, local ecology, and property values.

4.2.2.2 Don Valley Brickworks- Toronto-Canada

Design Team: Michael Hough- Hough Stansbury Woodland Limited

Typology | Use: Ecological Public Park

Size: 16,5 hectares

Budget: 3.500.000$-approximately 2.800.000€

Project background | History-brief description

By revealing the simultaneous use of ecological restoration for water quality improvements, habitat creation, and leisure and recreational opportunities,this redevelopment project highlights the fact that if designed appropriately, recreational areas may be compatible with storm water management, habitat restoration and water quality improvement. In this regard, the Don River Valley Brick Works project contributed to change perception and expectations on urban open space, transforming the former vision from parks as simple lawns with shrubs and trees to landscapes where varied wildlife habitats are merged with leisure and recreation opportunities.

In addition, the fact that the Don River watershed had lost most of its wetlands, as a result of the intense industrialization process in the 19th century followed by increasing urbanization in the 20th century which contributed for the canalization of several Don's River tributaries (City of Toronto,2007), highlights the significance of the proposed ecological restoration and environmental education project. Being inevitably tied to human activity and natural processes, the proposed design constitutes an" appropriate way of understanding heritage as a continual dynamic process of renewal" (Hough,2004, p.52).

Furthermore, the ecological based redevelopment of this former industrial landscape contributed to highlight the fact that pleasant surprises might arise by working with natural processes instead of trying to control them. The uniqueness of the proposed design was soon recognized, as it is attested by the several awards it has received (Foster, 2005).

The central objective of the proposed design was to heal the Don River while promoting conditions to link heritage and environmental restoration, highlighting the process through which, the industry that once contributed to the degradation of the valley has now become part of its restoration. Although the incorporation of the former industrial buildings in the proposed design was very limited, they were a key element of the design strategy, according to the premise that history is a dynamic process of change and adaptation learning from the past to create a relevance to present needs (Hough, 2004). As pointed out by Foster (2005), even if the city was not willing to emphasize the existing industrial heritage, the visionary landscape architect who developed the project, viewed this as an important asset to connect the site with the city and to represent industrial evolution and technological adaptation.

While redevelopment of brownfield sites has traditionally been economically focused, the strategy applied at the Brick Works site, enabled a balance between economic and ecological benefits(Nichols, 2009), providing, at the same time,additional green space for Toronto's residents(Foster, 2005).

Following the major project initiated in the mid-1990s by the regional Conservation Authority to restore the Don Valley Brickworks and its associated quarry, Michael Hough proposed a ecological based design to transform this heritage site of great significance to Toronto's natural and cultural history (Hough, 2004), into an appealing innovative ecological design based on the existing cultural and natural heritage and its relation to the surrounding urban context, offering several good examples of ecological design and sustainable place making strategies (Lister, 2007).

Moreover, as mentioned by Foster (2005,p.333), "(…) the site in many ways bears hallmarks of good design proposed by theorists of both ecological restoration and environmental aesthetics,combined with principles championed by thinkers and practitioners in the fields of landscape architecture and landscape ecology". Not unlike the afore analyzed case study Duisburg-Nord designed by Peter Latz, "the Brickworks site moves the notion of "park" well past nature preservation and into the realm of a learning landscape, designed to teach sustainability by example" (Lister, 2007,p.52). In this regard and considering the central objective of linking heritage and environmental restoration, the design strategy was based on interrelated themes: "the internationally significant geology of the quarry's north slope that reveals the changing climates which the region has experienced over geological time and the animals that once lived here; its wetland gardens created to provide life for insects, fish and birds, and to restore water quality to a diverted, once buried stream that flows into the Don River, thus contributing to the renewal of the Don River"(Hough, 2004, p.52).

Viewed as an ongoing process of renewal and healing, which will change and adapt in response to changing condition, the developed project (Fig.10) considered several key principles which were based not only in biological, social, economic and political issues, but also in the thoughtful comprehension of nature in cities as a part of a learning experience begun with community empowerment and action (Hough, 2004). As an adaptive and inclusive learning process the applied design strategy was developed considering longterm viability, ecological restoration, and our place in nature and within contemporary landscapes.

This land transformation project showed that regardless the objectives the Don Valley Brick Works redevelopment strategy constitutes an outstanding case study regarding ecological rehabilitation and conservation of cultural and natural history icons.

4.2.3 Identifi ed Planning and Design Principles

Considering the various sources of data and information regarding the six analyzed case studies (e.g. literature review, interviews with key participants and site users), 37 design principles were identified – table 1 (some of them were used in various analyzed case studies). However, even if the following principles and definitions were gathered throughout a deep and thoughtful process,they do not constitute an end or final output, but a design tool that might help designers during the design process and serve as a basis for future postindustrial redevelopment proposals (Table 01) .

Though the importance of the presented principles towards post-industrial land transformation design is acknowledge one should consider that being part of a specific normative theory towards, they need to be coupled with designers' expertise and site specificities and characteristics in order to achieve successful outcomes.

5 Final Considerations

It is increasingly acknowledge, that postindustrial landscapes, when reintegrated into the urban context, represent a valuable resource to society at different levels, improving landscape value and livability and contributing to increase life's quality, while diverting growth toward extant urban areas. This approach reduces sprawl and reinstates natural processes and functions. This is why postindustrial redevelopment has been considered as a proficient tool to contribute to sustainable development. In this regard, besides facilitating the identification of a set of planning and design principles used in post-industrial redevelopment projects the present research,enabled the creation of a common ground for postindustrial redevelopment, both theoretically and practically.

Still, even if it is recognized that the redevelopment of underused areas might constitute a feasible way of dealing with the progressive urbanization, there is still a question mark hanging over what kind of redevelopment these spaces can look forward to. In this regard, land use planning methods should identify the right balance and timing between pro-active policies and re-active regeneration projects, and between legislative,administrative and educational policy engines,engaging citizens, authorities and markets in a process of reinvention of urban living. In these circumstances post-industrial landscapes if integrated properly in the planning process, may become a driving force for urban growth, fostering a positive image that will attract investors as well astourists.

Table 01-Design principles identified on the 6 analysed case studies-1 Duisburg Nord; 2 Tejo-Trancão; 3 Westergasfabriek; 4 Cleveland Valley; 5 Don River Brickworks; 6 Millennium Park

This investigation indicated that the redevelopment of derelict post-industrial landscapes should follow design principles that promote sustainability, reduce negative environmental impacts, and foment economic prosperity,social inclusion and life's quality, reason why the interlocking relationship between design and management is a particularly important feature in future urban design processes and strategies.Nonetheless, a deeper analysis of the redevelopment process highlights that there is a general lack of`strategic vision' in today's planning activities. In conscious opposition to the lack of community visioning that is recognized; the envisioned framework is considered to enable the development of solutions that seek to satisfy a time, which is not so far off, where post-industrial land transformation will become a necessity in the urban landscape.

However, research has shown that, even if,throughout the last decades several researchers and academics have been committed with the development of strategies and frameworks to enable the creation of better landscape transformation projects, redevelopment proposals still tend to be excessively subjective and directly dependent on the designer's determination and intentions.In this regard the application of the proposed methodological framework is considered to be a proficient tool to decrease design's subjectivity,creating a common ground in which different fields of knowledge might communicate enhancing the quality of future redevelopment proposals.

Additionally it is relevant to notice that the used approach allowed the creation of a set of planning and design principles connected with the landscape and that respects site and context;and that the application of the design principles,presented in this article, in the reclamation of postindustrial landscapes represents just a planning and design possibility that may contribute to increase the sustainability of the design. Several other planning options may be proposed. Moreover,one should notice that the application of these principles, besides positive, does not constitute a sine qua non equation to the success of any project. Site and context research, analysis and synthesis must be performed, once "no size fits all". Regardless of the relevance of the application of the identified planning and design principles in the redevelopment proposals site specificity and designer creativity continue to be crucial elements of the overall design process.

In conclusion it is believed that the presented approach will reinforce the quality of postindustrial land transformation projects increasing landscape character and promoting the creation of multifunctional resilient landscapes, capable to incorporate change and enhance life's quality.

6 Acknowledgements

The author would like to acknowledge financial support given by the Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (CIEO).

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