盆山系统沉积学—兼论华北和塔里木地区研究实例①

2013-11-13 02:36:00徐建强
沉积学报 2013年5期
关键词:造山碎屑物源

李 忠 徐建强 高 剑

(中国科学院地质与地球物理研究所 北京 100029)

0 引言

山脉和盆地是沉积地壳演化的两个端员产物或两个基本地理—地质单元,又是一个密切关联的系统或有机整体。正因为如此,完整的沉积盆地动力学研究必须基于岩石圈尺度上的盆山系统分析,探索盆地演化、造山作用与深部过程三者之间的耦合关系已经成为现代地球动力学研究的前沿领域[1~13]。近年来,特别是地震以及综合地球物理探测技术、同位素地球化学与年代学测试技术、以及计算技术的发展和应用,盆山系统的学科研究在新的层面上呈现出勃勃生机。另一方面沉积(充填)记录不仅在表征盆地形成演化,而且在重建造山带形成—改造过程方面具有独特性,因此沉积学成为研究盆山系统的重要基础学科之一,也是盆山系统分析中极为活跃的领域。在庆祝《沉积学报》创刊30周年暨第五届全国沉积学大会召开之际,应邀撰写此文,一则希望结合近期国内外研究进展对盆山系统沉积学的研究体系作一探讨和梳理,二则试图以作者研究的部分实例为基础分析盆山系统沉积学的重要科学问题及发展趋向。

1 盆山系统研究趋势与盆山系统类型

盆山系统是指任一地质历史时期具有成因关联的山脉和盆地构成的有机整体,即大型隆起剥蚀区与沉降充填区在构造、沉积和深部结构上的关联系统,它们往往可以通过盆山之间物质、能量和动量的输运和相互作用进一步加以刻画;换句话说,盆山系统可以通过构造、沉积、流体、深部岩石圈演化等领域开展研究。

盆山系统分析自上世纪90年代开始进入第一个高 潮。 以 北 美 Sevier 冲 断 带[14~16]、欧 洲 Alps山[17~20]、亚洲的喜马拉雅山[21~24]为代表,多学科的盆山系统研究获得了极大的成功。值得一提的是,国际岩石圈计划(ILP)“沉积盆地成因”任务组曾对板块构造环境、地壳结构、地幔结构、岩石圈有效弹性厚度和屈服刚度包络面与沉积盆地形成演化的控制关系开展了多领域、多尺度的专题研究[2,4,25~31],在应力与盆地演化、岩石圈流变与盆地形成、岩石圈深部过程的近地表显示等领域开展了广泛的国际合作,突现了多学科多方位开展盆山耦合研究的重要性与必要性[11]。在此期间我国学者追踪国际对比研究计划,也分别在华南[32]、青藏[33,34]、昆仑山[35,36]、秦岭[37]、大别山[38~40]、燕山[41~43]、龙门山[44]以及天山[45~48]等地区开展了盆山特别是陆内盆山系统研究,成果显著。

近十年来借助高精度地球物理探测技术、同位素地球化学与(低温)热年代学测试技术以及计算技术的发展和应用,盆山系统分析进入了一个新的发展阶段,其研究进展主要体现在不同盆山结合带的精细结构刻画、高精度综合物源体系解析和重建、多参数定量约束山—盆隆凹历史、盆山演化定量数值模拟等方面[49~51],学科研究呈现出勃勃生机。除定量数值模拟外,我国学者的盆山系统工作也比较全面地登上国际学术舞台或呈现全新的发展态势,这其中在青藏高原及邻区、塔里木盆地及邻区、华北盆地及邻区、四川盆地及邻区等盆山系统的研究成果尤其值得关注(参见文献[52])。

回顾国内外研究历程,可以看到以往对盆地和造山带比较成熟的理论认识主要来自于各自独立的研究体系,而上世纪90年代开始的盆山相互作用或耦合(体系)分析,在一定程度上改变了这一现状。这种改变或其后效突出表现在三个方面:其一,造山带形成演化除了对造山带本身分析外还可以从相邻盆地中获得其他沉积充填记录的约束信息;其二,盆地形成演化除了对盆地本身研究外还可以从相邻造山带中获得其他动力学约束信息;其三,盆山系统可以作为一种新的地质单元或整体进行研究。

尽管如此,迄今为止尚无完整或确切的盆山系统分类提出。西方学者关注的重点是岩石圈尺度、板块构造或大陆构造体制下的盆山关系或相互作用问题,如以盆地研究和板块构造的结合为主线划分出离散、汇聚、转换、板内、复合(hybrid)类型[1];结合造山—造盆作用与板块构造位置可以归为陆岛、洋岛、陆—陆和陆—弧体系[53];我国学者也以盆地研究体系[54]为主线划分出冲断造山带与前陆盆地、伸展山岭与裂陷盆地、走滑造山带与走滑盆地等三类盆—岭耦合体系[55];而根据构造应力体制还分出了引张、挤压、走滑引张、走滑挤压、垂直应力和冲击等6种盆山耦合类型[56]。

鉴于盆—山在构造和沉积演化属性上的不可分割性,笔者认为盆山系统分类应综合考虑如下三原则:①板块构造单元(位置);②盆山形成演化的构造动力学体制;③构造—古地理特征或区域源—汇构造—沉积属性。为此本文综合给出了表1的盆山系统分类,并概括了十四个亚类的源—汇基本特征,供讨论。其中陆内盆山系统和洋内盆山系统总体以近源或中—近源沉积体系(域)为特征,而陆缘(陆洋)盆山系统比较复杂,近源和远源沉积体系(域)均有发育。

2 盆山系统沉积学的主要研究体系

盆山系统沉积学是以研究盆山系统为主要任务的沉积学分支,其科学内涵有二:其一,通过沉积作用分析,将山脉和盆地两个沉积地壳演化的端员产物合二为一;其二,理论上盆地充填产物是反映盆山演化最连续、最敏感的地质记录。近年来的盆山系统沉积学已经具有综合学科的地位或发展趋势,其研究体系一般由如下五个部分构成:构造—地层单元与等时地层格架、物源示踪与源汇体系、综合沉积记录及古构造—古气候演变、沉积体系(域)与综合构造—古地理、盆山演化动力学。

表1 盆山系统分类Table 1 Basin-range system classification

2.1 构造—地层单元与等时地层格架

构造—地层单元与等时地层格架是盆山系统沉积学的学科基础之一,但构造活动区和稳定区的沉积面貌迥异,研究内容各有特色。研究目标就是要划分构造—地层单元、厘定各单元中岩石地层单元的年代界限,特别是在盆地井下及邻区造山带构建沉积对比方案,客观认识沉积的序列、环境演变和结构关系,以期正确对比盆山等时地层沉积记录;另一方面就是要开展沉积地层与海平面变化对比,为识别沉积序列、层序格架的构造控制作用及其与物源供给、气候和造山过程的相互关系奠定时空基础。

对于构造稳定区,除了传统的生物地层以外,等时地层格架的建立应充分发挥同位素年代地层、磁性地层与地震剖面解析的结合,这在陆内盆山系统陆相红色地层研究中尤其重要。

由于同生期构造混杂和/或后期构造叠加作用,大多数造山带(构造活动区)地层剖面只能保留其演化的某些片段或者说难于辨认其原始的沉积序列,因此成为造山带沉积学研究的难题。特别是针对非史密斯地层这个问题,以往国内外均开展了大量研究,并逐步取得了多方面认识进展[57~70]。一个有效的方法就是借助精细的地层古生物(如牙形石)研究,并结合构造几何学的归位分析和相序分析,在正常片段恢复基础上,建立比较长尺度的年代地层和沉积序列。当然由于造山带地层(特别是混杂岩区)的多样性和构造单元的复杂性,其研究难度和工作量巨大,对诸多造山带沉积序列的认识仍然问题重重,因此需要长期不懈的探索。

2.2 物源示踪与源汇体系

物源示踪与源汇体系是盆山系统沉积学的学科基础之二。碎屑沉积是沉积记录的重要组成部分,而碎屑物源示踪是衔接盆—山转换的关键,其中蕴涵着大量的造山带演化的地球动力学信息:①通过系统的碎屑矿物(重、轻矿物)、砾石的年代学谱系和地球化学分析,恢复和重建造山带的源区类型、年代与岩石构成[71~73];②开展高分辨率重矿物分析(HRHMA),即通过稳定碎屑重矿物的标型特征、年代学和微区地球化学分析及其详细的物源示踪,可以厘定较为精确的造山带块体组成、构造框架与演化细节[74~81];③碎屑热年代学研究,特别是结晶岩砾石中不同矿物(具有不同封闭温度)的热年代学、锆石等碎屑矿物裂变径迹的研究,为揭示山带隆升和剥蚀速率,认识古地貌演化与盆山构造关系提供了独特的定量信息[80,82~87];④做为源区类型、年代与岩石构造属性的主要定量判别分析手段,碎屑沉积岩岩石地球化学的配套参数,特别是微量、稀土元素和钕同位素模式年龄的分析与示踪近年来也得到广泛应用[79,88~94]。上述通过物源示踪识别源汇体系的研究已经成为当今盆山系统沉积学的热点。

尽管如此,由于碎屑成因的复杂性,因此对碎屑沉积记录中地球动力学信息的提取和解释尚面临诸多难题,特别是在微量样品的分离、对比标准的选择和数值校正、复杂因素的分析和厘定方面。

2.3 综合沉积记录及古构造—古气候演变

综合沉积记录及古构造—古气候演变是盆山系统沉积学的学科基础之三。综合沉积记录包括沉积剖面(柱)中的颜色、岩性、岩相、古生物组合及生物相物源岩石与构造属性、各类碎屑组合与特征元素—同位素及化合物地球化学参数等指标及其对古构造—古气候的指示含义。

基本研究思路通过建立有年代学资料限定的综合沉积记录,提取古构造—古气候指标,建立综合沉积剖面,对比分析盆地充填与山带隆升—剥露过程及其区域变化,厘定高分辨率碎屑组构及其主控因素;结合相关地质、地球化学和地球物理资料,综合分析盆山分异与构造—沉积响应过程,深入探索构造变形、气候分异与山—盆演化的地球动力学机理,并借此阐明盆山构造类型和沉积充填模式,以及构造叠加改造特征。应该指出,近年来气候分异对前第四纪沉积记录及盆山演变的驱动机理已经受到愈来愈多的关注[50~52]。

2.4 沉积体系(域)与综合构造—古地理

沉积体系(域)与综合构造—古地理是盆山系统沉积学的学科核心。在认识构造—地层单元与等时地层格架、物源示踪与源汇体系、综合沉积记录及古构造—古气候演变的基础上,解析沉积体系(域),结合相关地质、地球化学和地球物理资料重建构造—古地理。理论上,盆山构造类型往往存在空间分异,因此古地理变革复杂多变。对此该研究将特别注重考察时间(变革前后)和空间(分段)的不同,着眼于分析不同单元源—汇体系、沉积体系及其区域古地理的演变特征。与洋—陆转换、盆—山转换有关的沉积体系与古地理格架是研究的核心内容。研究难点显然是关键构造变革期前后等时单元的选取和古地理重建。因此,重要构造层界面划分与属性分析、古物源—古地势结合分析尤为重要。

与稳定区古地理的重建不一样,造山带古地理必须更多地与构造地质密切结合,并关注一些极端的沉积作用分析和环境恢复,如深水沉积[95~98]、大洋和火山沉积[99,100]、俯冲带混杂堆积等[58,101,102]。显然,由于造山带构造的活动性和体制演变的复杂性,加之认识程度限制,造山带沉积建造研究常常出现对已有沉积古地理模式的挑战。因此相关研究必须采用活动论思想,在多学科(构造、沉积、古生物、古地磁、火山岩、地球化学等)分析基础上,重建构造—古地理。

2.5 盆山演化动力学

盆山演化动力学是盆山系统沉积学的学科目标。构造变革、盆山转换和物源变迁、海平面变化等对沉积古地理展布和演化具有重要制约作用。因此,研究旨在沉积序列、源汇—沉积体系以及区域古地理演变分析基础上,结合该区地质、地球化学与地球物理等方面资料,解析原型盆地和造山作用,揭示隆凹速率和/或剥露—充填速率,重建盆山或洋陆转换关键过程,并探索其构造演化的动力学模式。值得一提的是,数值模拟已经或正在成为定量解析和重建盆山或洋陆转换动力学过程[7,49~51]的热点研究领域。

上述五个方面内容构成了盆山系统沉积学的基础研究体系。值得一提的是,盆地是油气、煤、层控矿床等资源赋存的重要场所,也是人类栖息的主要空间,因此盆山系统沉积学在完整认识沉积—成岩型资源形成分布和环境演变等诸多领域具有广泛应用前景,也衍生出了一系列应用研究分支,如研究烃源岩、储集体、泥炭沼泽、层控矿床水文—气候环境系统与构造—古地理演变的关系等等,在此从略。

3 盆山系统沉积学研究实例

伴随古亚洲、特提斯和太平洋三大构造域的演化和相互作用,中国大陆由华北、扬子、塔里木、华夏等古陆经历多旋回裂解—拼合而成,并在此过程中发育和保存有诸多盆山系统。在中国北方,围绕大兴安岭、太行山、燕山—阴山、鲁西隆起、大别山、贺兰山、秦岭、祁连山、北山、天山、阿勒泰、昆仑山、阿尔金山等山系,围绕松辽、华北、渤海湾、周口—合肥、鄂尔多斯、南襄、走廊—阿拉善、柴达木、塔里木、准噶尔等盆地,也发育了一系列不同时代、不同类型、丰富多彩的盆山系统,是全球盆山系统沉积学重要的研究场所[52]。

前已述及,自1990年代初期开始国内外学者有计划地开展了中国大陆盆山系统沉积学的研究[32,38,45,103~107],并已积累了不同程度的分析资料,提升了相关盆山系统的认知程度;然而,国内盆山系统的沉积学研究总体仍然处于初期阶段。近年来笔者对中国北方几个盆山系统开展了沉积学研究,尤其在物源示踪与源汇体系、综合沉积记录及古构造演变方面加强了工作,以求推进沉积体系(域)与综合构造—古地理、盆山演化成因动力学的研究进程。以下遴选华北、西北地区两个实例简要讨论有关研究进展及关键问题。

3.1 华北东部地区侏罗—白垩纪陆内盆山系统关键沉积记录

华北地区侏罗—白垩纪盆山系统是典型陆内盆山系统,因此也是近年来大陆动力学研究的热点地区。华北侏罗—白垩纪盆山系统的形成与北缘晚古生代至早中生代兴—蒙造山作用、南缘早中生代大别—苏鲁造山作用和北部中生代燕山造山作用息息相关。以往研究表明[108~112],早中生代盆山系统构造以东西向为主,晚中生代—新生代岩石圈减薄或破坏对北东—北北东向盆—岭构造的形成演化产生了重要影响。然而,对于这一构造转折的盆山沉积演化细节(特别是侏罗纪)却知之甚少,长期争论颇多。为此,笔者等针对性开展了就华北东部地区(燕山、大别山、鲁西隆起和合肥盆地等)侏罗—白垩纪陆内盆山沉积学分析。其中针对处于关键部位、争议极大的华北中东部鲁西隆起中生代沉积记录,重点开展了侏罗系和下白垩统连续砂岩样品的碎屑物源示踪与源汇体系、综合沉积记录及古构造—古地理演变分析。

通过鲁西地区下—中侏罗统坊子组、中—上侏罗统三台组和下白垩统分水岭组冲积平原相、河流—三角洲相比较连续的砂岩碎屑锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf同位素分析显示(图1a),U-Pb年龄中的古元古代-新太古代年龄与华北北缘出露基底年龄特征一致,显生宙年龄(252~393 Ma)记录的晚古生代岩浆活动均未发现于鲁西隆起及其邻近地区,而可以与大量出露于华北北缘及其北部的兴—蒙造山带的岩浆活动进行对比。上述砂岩中相当部分(40%以上)的显生宙碎屑锆石(150~324 Ma)具有正的εHf(t)值同位素特征,也与兴—蒙造山带特征相似。而A型石榴石(原始数据见文献[113],在此从略)在坊子组向三台组、分水岭组沉积的演化过程中较明显的增强趋势,也指示源区华北北缘地势隆升增强,深部基底麻粒岩被更多的剥露出来。另一方面,碎屑锆石无新元古代和中—晚三叠世超高压变质年龄,说明侏罗纪—早白垩世早期研究区与扬子板块及鲁西隆起东南部的苏鲁造山带物源无明显关系。

图1 鲁西地区碎屑锆石U-Pb年龄与εHf(t)值散点图(a~c)及对应样品采集剖面(d)Fig.1 A scatter diagram(a ~ c)showing U-Pb ages versus εHf(t)values of detrital zircons in Luxi area,which sampling horizons are marked in(d)

与上述不同,青山组扇三角洲和湖泊相砂岩样品碎屑锆石的显生宙年龄主要由早白垩世年龄组成,其εHf(t)值都为负值(图1b,c);但该组样品同样也不存在表征扬子板块及苏鲁造山带的新元古代和中—晚三叠世年龄。考虑该时期近源沉积的环境特点[114],并结合碎屑石榴石化学成分分析资料(原始数据见文献[113],在此从略)对高级变基性岩和高级麻粒岩相副变质岩物源的指示,可以厘定青山组最主要的物源应来自华北克拉通内部或鲁西等周缘地区。

图2 华北东部中生代中晚期构造—古地理演化(据文献[114,115]修编)Fig.2 The middle-late Mesozoic tectonic-paleogeographicevolution of eastern North China block(modified after references[114,115])

这一研究表明,西伯利亚板块与华北—蒙古联合块体的碰撞隆升增强,逐渐形成相对华北克拉通内部的高地势,是该区侏罗纪—早白垩世早期(约136 Ma前)最显著的山—盆系统,即华北北缘的高地势导致大量的剥蚀产物向南“梯级”输运,并成为包括鲁西在内的华北克拉通内部主要碎屑物源的供给体系(图2)。此外苏鲁造山带碎屑物源直到白垩纪早期也未向西越过郯庐带而影响华北克拉通东部地区。这些研究结论完善或修订了前人有关燕山构造隆升转折时限[116]、华北东部中生代中晚期“高原”存在与否[117,118]、中生代盆地和造山构造类型[119]等问题的认识,为构造—古地理重建提供了新的沉积学依据。

3.2 塔里木地区泥盆—石炭纪陆缘(陆洋)盆山系统关键沉积记录

对于塔里木盆地与北侧天山造山带所构成的巨型盆山体系,以往的研究业已认识到它是晚古生代多微板块拼合和增生作用[104,120~127]及其后中—新生代多期陆内造山作用[47,84,86,104,128~132]的结果。主要基于岩浆—变质岩、构造及地层解析等不同学科研究,目前南天山洋最后闭合—碰撞造山时间有多种不同观点,即:晚泥盆—早石炭世、早—晚石炭世、中—晚二叠世、早—中三叠世等,而南天山洋闭合的俯冲极性则存在向南和向北两种完全对立的认识和不同的构造模式[133~142]。为此需要深入补充或加强对构造演化具有敏感指示的塔里木北缘和南天山泥盆—石炭纪沉积记录暨陆缘(陆洋)盆山系统沉积学的研究。

图3 南天山及周缘构造格架与研究剖面位置Fig.3 Tectonic configuration of South Tianshan and its adjacent area,in which the studied profiles are labeled

南天山洋盆的早期记录赋存于构造混杂带或其支离破碎的“岩片”剖面之中(图3),因此厘定构造活动区南天山泥盆—石炭纪生物组合(特别是放射虫)记录的时空分异与地层格架是本研究的难题和重要基础之一。综合前人及作者的资料,特别是基于对混杂堆积中微体化石资料和岩石地层单元(或岩片)的解析,图4概括了南天山年代地层分析结果,显示放射虫发育层位主体集中于晚泥盆世—早石炭世,但由西南天山到东南天山放射虫发育顶界层位从维宪阶变为杜内阶,略有降低,可能说明南天山洋自东向西收缩关闭的格局。

以南天山中东部的野云沟—策达雅和大山口剖面为例,进一步的沉积序列研究显示,南天山东部中上泥盆统—下石炭统为构造混杂堆积,含一套中酸性和中—高K钙碱性火山岩系,且具有岛弧火山岩特点①李忠等.2010,塔里木区块构造—岩相古地理研究与编图,中国石化科技报告(内部资料),其中从碎屑锆石U-Pb年代学中难于寻觅塔里木陆块的明显信息(图5k,l);而上石炭统则发育滨浅海相稳定构造沉积序列,碎屑锆石年龄虽然也主要集中在大约390~490 Ma,但来自塔里木陆块的锆石物源年龄信息(晚元古代750~850 Ma以及少量早元古—太古代年龄)显露(图5g,h),沉积物源格局发生改变,佐证了放射虫记录的南天山洋关闭事件。南天山西部以阿合奇以北的南天山剖面分析为代表,上泥盆统—下石炭统含有典型的大洋玄武岩、放射虫硅质岩和深水浊积岩混杂组合;上石炭统则为一套浅海和滨岸碎屑岩或混积岩构成的稳定陆缘沉积。比较东南天山,该区碎屑锆石U-Pb年龄主峰除集中在400~500 Ma以外,前寒武纪 750~850 Ma、900~1 100 Ma碎屑锆石显著增加,从上泥盆统—下石炭统到上石炭统变化不大(图5a-f),其物源与塔里木陆块密切关联。换句话说,尽管放射虫资料说明早石炭纪早维宪期后南天山洋已经关闭,但直到晚石炭世塔里木西北缘仍然延续了前石炭纪的沉积物源格局,并未记录到显著的南天山碰撞造山事件及其效应。

基于上述碎屑物源与岩相研究,以及综合生物古地理资料[61],认识到西南天山与东南天山存在被动陆缘和弧相关陆缘盆山系统的差异地质记录。可能正是塔里木以南的古特提斯分支洋盆在早石炭世及其后的继续扩张,导致塔里木北移以及南天山洋和准噶尔—北天山区的古亚洲洋关闭,并于早石炭世晚期(或维宪期)—晚石炭世在南天山中东部和西部以不同构造动力学(极性)模式相继消亡。

显然,在陆内、陆缘(陆洋)等不同盆山系统的沉积学研究体系中难点不一;但无论如何,等时地层格架、物源示踪与综合沉积记录及古构造—古气候演变等研究的基础地位不容动摇。现阶段由于原位同位素年代学技术和示踪技术的发展,在源汇体系、综合沉积记录及古构造—古气候演变等热点领域投入的必要性凸显;当然综合等时地层格架的研究也应加强,特别是在当下传统生物地层研究衰落的背景下,这一点尤其值得在陆缘(陆洋)盆山系统的构造活动区沉积记录和陆内盆山系统的红层沉积记录研究中强调。

4 主要认识

(1)盆山系统作为一个整体单元是现代地球动力学研究的热点。综合考虑板块构造单元(位置)、盆山形成演化的构造动力学体制、构造—古地理特征或区域源—汇构造—沉积属性,可以将盆山系统划分出三大类、十四个亚类。其中陆内盆山系统和洋内盆山系统总体以近源或中—近源沉积体系(域)为特征,而陆缘(陆洋)盆山系统比较复杂,近源和远源沉积体系(域)均有发育。

(2)盆山系统沉积学已经具有综合学科的地位或发展趋势,其研究体系一般由构造—地层单元与等时地层格架、物源示踪与源汇体系、综合沉积记录及古构造—古气候演变、沉积体系(域)与综合构造—古地理、盆山演化动力学等五个部分构成。前三部分是研究基础,在不同盆山系统中研究难点不一。

(3)华北侏罗—白垩纪是典型的陆内盆山系统。重点对碎屑物源示踪与源汇体系的分析表明,西伯利亚板块与华北—蒙古联合块体的碰撞隆升增强,逐渐形成相对华北克拉通内部的高地势,是该区侏罗纪—早白垩世早期(约136 Ma前)最显著的山—盆系统;而苏鲁造山带碎屑物源直到白垩纪早期也未向西越过郯庐带影响华北克拉通东部地区盆地沉积。

(4)塔里木北缘和南天山泥盆—石炭纪发育典型的陆缘(陆洋)盆山系统。基于碎屑物源与岩相以及生物古地理资料综合研究,初步揭示了西南天山被动陆缘与东南天山弧相关陆缘盆山系统的差异记录。提出由于塔里木以南的古特提斯分支洋盆扩张,导致南天山洋和准噶尔—北天山区的古亚洲洋关闭,并于早石炭世晚期(或维宪期)—晚石炭世在南天山中东部和西部以不同构造动力学(极性)模式相继消亡。

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