The Religion of the Yao in the Golden Triangle

文：李坚

IN the depth of the rugged mountains in the Golden Triangle dwells a group of unique people. More than 80,000 strong, living in over 300 villages scattered in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand,1 they constitute less than 4 percent of the total population of their Yao ethnic origin from in China. They have no modern technology, no formal social organization above the village level, not even a written language of their own. Nonetheless, they strive to maintain their way of life. Known to the Lao-Thai as “chaokao”or “mountain people,”they call themselves “Yao.”To their elderspreference, however, they are “King Pans children.”

Since 1997, I have conducted extended ethnographic fieldwork in Greenhill,2 one of the largest Yao villages in the Golden Triangle, with a population of 1,270 living in 124 households. The goal of my research was to study the Yao as a transnational society. My motive was embedded in my belief that an understanding of the Yao in Southeast Asia is essential to a complete understanding the ethnic Yao as a unified ethnic group of China. My method was to appreciate the Yao culture through an in-depth study of a typical Yao village.

In the following, drawing upon my ethnographic fieldwork in Greenhill, I sketch some highlights of Yao religion, with an emphasis on the features that I interviewed the Yao about and observed directly.

Yao Religion

Yao religion has two essential features. Linguistically, it is deeply intertwined with its long-standing relationship with the Chinese language. The Yao have a long tradition of acquiring the Chinese language and utilizing it to document their cultural activities and religious beliefs. Today, the Yao in the Golden Triangle continue to maintain this tradition.

In the Greenhill village, for example, most Yao men spoke fluent Yunnanese, a Chinese dialect spoken in Yunnan province of China. Although fewer women could speak Chinese, many understood it well. In the past, most villagers studied Chinese under their elders. In addition to that, some families now even send their children to Chinese schools in the nearby towns. Currently, at least one in ten young men in Greenhill can speak standard Chinese fluently.

The Yao have good reason to keep up their high level of Chinese literacy. The Yao frequently communicate with other ethnic groups in Chinese; more importantly, Chinese is the working language in their religious activities. Since the Yao religious scriptures and books are all written in Chinese, the Yao believe that gods and spirits do not understand the Yao language and must be addressed in Chinese. Indeed, a Yao person must be able to read and write Chinese to be qualified for a shamans position. Because of these activities, in nearly every Yao village I visited, I was able to find many Yao men who could read and write Chinese. In Greenhill, some villagers even gained fine skills in Chinese calligraphy.

Theologically, amalgamation represents the second important characteristic of the Yao religion. According to Jacques Lemoine, a French anthropologist, the Yao borrowed their formal religious beliefs from the religions of the Hanpeople, especially from the Chinese Daoism and ancestor worship. While borrowing, nonetheless, the Yao have modified the Chinese religious elements and developed their own belief system through mixing and blending.

In theory, Yao religion is best understood in terms of Daoism, ancestor worship, and animism. In reality, however, these three components are so deeply interwoven that it is nearly impossible to distinguish them. Daoist theology, for example, is mingled with ancestor worship in Yao practice, and ancestor spirits play a crucial role in the Yaos animistic rituals. Together, they form an integrated body of religious beliefs and are separated here only for the convenience of discussion.

Daoism

By and large, the Yao utilize Daoism to define their cosmology and express their religious worldviews. In incorporating Daoism, however, the Yao have localized the Daoist theology and appropriated Daoism to rectify their historical and cultural events. In this sense, the Daoism found among the Yao may be described as “The Yaos version of Daoism,”as the Chinese ethnologist Hu Qiwang put it. Although the principal gods of Daoism, such as the Jade Emperor, the Four Kings, the Three Purified Saints, the Great King of Fengdu, the Dragon Deity, and the Leopard Deity, are incorporated, they appear to be of secondary importance. In contrast, deities relevant to the Yao history and culture, such as King Pan, the Thunder God, the Rain God, the Village God, and the Rice God, occupy the illustrious positions and are worshiped elaborately.

Daoism provides the Yao with an organized ideology in their quest for an orderly world. The Almanac of All Ages, a Daoist book I found in Greenhill, offers an example. Hand-written in some 100 stanzas, the book elaborates on the Daoist theological viewpoints, including the origin of the universe and the divine organization of Heaven, Earth, and Hell. The universe, as described in the book, is governed by the Jade Emperor. Under him, stand the Four Kings, the Three Purified Saints, and tens of lesser supernatural sages and deities who take care of worldly affairs. For example, the Copper King decides if one can become rich, while the Kitchen God takes responsibility for the safety of ones residence.

As a religious outlook, Daoism has a profound influence on the Yao, yet, it is far less visible in their society as a religious practice. In the Golden Triangle, Daoist temples are found only in large villages. In small villages, Yao shamans usually hold a concurrent position as part-time priests. On the outskirts of Greenhill, there is a Daoist temple with two priests. Both were Chinese-Thai and both received formal Daoist training in Bangkok. Master Shang, the owner of the temple, explained about his experience regarding Daoism as a religious practice among the Yao:

Yes, there are places where a Yao shaman serves as a Daoist priest and provides ceremonial services to his fellow villagers...and thats fine. Are they qualified? I don't know them and I am unable to comment on that, all I may say is that their practices are probably informal. Do we have educational programs? Yes, in our temple, we have routine ceremonies and classes to appreciate the Daoist scriptures, but not many are interested... most are more interested in the utilities of Daoism. They ask me for help when they need to have a funeral ceremony or locate a lucky place to build a new house.

Ancestor Worship

Ancestor worship is another essential component of Yao religion. It explains the Yaos origin and highlights filial piety, a moral value that the Yao cherish. In nature, Yao ancestor worship shares a common ground with that of the Han people. For example, both adhere to the belief that ancestral spirits determine the well-being of their descendents. In quest of blessings, both pursue a harmonious relationship between the spiritual world and the human world.

Despite that, among the Han, the worship is directed toward the spirits of ones own ancestors and strengthens a behavioral model for participants to follow through the colorful rites for ancestors. Most importantly, it specifies individual roles in a lineage or clan and reinforces a social hierarchy prescribed in Confucian theology.

In contrast, the Yaos practice differs from that of the Han in both whom to worship and how to worship. The ancestor worship of the Yao is intertwined with worship of ones own ancestors and King Pan, the totemic creator and mythical ancestor of the Yao people. At least in theory, the Greenhill shamans confirmed, the Yao gave their ultimate worship to King Pan.

Although many Yao people I interviewed did not have specific knowledge of King Pan, most had heard the legend about him. Quite a few Greenhill shamans, however, were not only knowledgeable about the subject but were able to recite King Pans creation story as described in The Documents of Crossing Mountains. Feng Chunguang, a 79-year-old Yao shaman and the head of the Feng lineage in Greenhill, related the story to me:

Yes, it was recorded in The Documents of Crossing Mountains...King Pan was the ancestor of the ethnic Yao . It happened long, long ago, at a time when Emperor Ping of China was fighting against King Gao.Emperor Ping was losing the war and was in need of help desperately. A divine dragon-dog, blazing with five magnificent colors, came to Emperor Pings rescue. It was no easy battle. Why? Because King Gao was an evil and powerful monster. In the end, the dragon-dog beheaded King Gao and brought his head back to Emperor Ping. Out of his deep gratitude, Emperor Ping granted the title of King Pan to the dragon-dog and rewarded it with the Third Princess, his most beautiful daughter. On the night of the wedding, the dragon-dog changed into a handsome young man. Because the dragon-dog, now King Pan, and the Third Princess preferred mountains to a palace, they left the capital and settled down in the green mountains. They lived together happily since and had 12 children, six boys and six girls, from whom the 12 Yao clans came into being....

In addition to King Pan, the ancestors of each family and lineage aggregate the second layer of the Yaos ancestor worship. The Yao have a tradition of keeping detailed genealogies. In Greenhill, many families recorded the names of their ancestors up to seven generations. However, they placed a special emphasis on the last four generations of patriarchal ancestors. Primarily, ancestor worship was a household activity in the village and was often observed along with other family events, such as the birth of a child, a wedding, or the beginning of a new year. In certain situations, though not very often, the ceremony was elaborated and celebrated as a lineage event.

In Greenhill, I observed a ceremony of ancestor worship held by the Feng lineage. Almost all members of the lineage participated in the preparation. At dawn, a pig was slaughtered and beheaded. The head and heart of the pig were placed on the ritual table, along with the rest of the pig that was cut into five pieces. After corn whisky was poured into cups and offerings were presented, Feng Chungguang, the head of the lineage, began to chant the lineages genealogy and a Daoist scripture book. Then, he read aloud the names of lineage members, both children and adults, while burning incense and ceremonial money. At last, Feng invited the ancestor spirits to enjoy the sacrifices. The ceremony ended with a happy feast for all participants. Feng explained the rationale of the ceremony in this way:

This ceremony is important for us, because we, the ethnic Yao , have to remember our ancestors. Nowadays, we dont do that as often as we used to, but we still do it when there are crucial matters we need to tell our ancestors. My grandson got married last year and just got his first son last month. We needed this ceremony so that we can thank our ancestors for their blessings and let them know the newborn....

In addition to its religious purposes, ancestor worship strengthens a harmonious relationship among family and lineage members in Yao society. The ancestors are revered as powerful spirits in charge of the well-being of their descendents. Since elderly people usually host and supervise ceremonial activities, ancestor worship enhances their social status. Indeed, it is a norm in Greenhill that young persons are always expected to show full respect and obedience toward their elders.

Animism

Animism represents the core of Yao religion. The Yao believe that all beings and objects in the universe have souls. From their perspective, the soul constitutes an invisible, untouchable, and indestructible essence that manipulates the universe. A mountain has its “mountain soul,”a stretch of water has its “water soul,”and a tree has its “Tree soul.”The soul exists anywhere and everywhere, from buffaloes to mountain flowers. Also, it is possible that multiple souls coexist in one entity. The human body, Pan Jinxing, a Greenhill shaman, told me, had 11 souls: head soul, eye soul, ear soul, nose soul, mouth soul, neck soul, shoulder soul, arm soul, chest soul, abdomen soul, and foot soul. Each soul governed specific activities of the body and coordinated with other souls, he said.

Animism complements and supplements the Yaos versions of Daoism and ancestor worship. Daoism answers the Yaos cosmological questions and ancestor worship explains the Yaos origin and values. Yet, animism serves as the Yaos response to the worldly events and helps them resolve problems they encounter in daily life. In terms of health and illness, for instance, animistic rituals abate the villagers?fear of illness and put forth a psychological means to promote their health. Illness is defined as an attack from an angry soul and a corresponding ritual provides a solution. “Soul-calling”and the bridge ceremony offer two examples.

A simple, informal, and flexible ritual, soul-calling is a healing ritual usually applied to minor health problems or illness. Drawing upon animistic belief, Yao shamans believe that health is governed by the soul. If the soul wanders away from the body and stops governing, abnormality occurs and a person falls ill. Soul-calling is used to communicate with the wandering soul and invite it back to where it belongs.

I observed soul-calling on numerous occasions in Greenhill and several other Yao villages. In general, if a person suffered from minor illness, a soul-calling ritual would soon be arranged. The host family was responsible for the occasion and the requirements were simple. A rooster was usually slaughtered and used as the sacrifice. The host family also needed to prepare a few meat dishes and several bowls of vegetables. Often a shaman, sometimes an elderly man from the lineage, hosted the ritual, which was comprised of chanting the sick persons name, the ancestors?names, and the invitations used to persuade the soul to return to the body.

Despite the availability of modern medicine, soul-calling continues to be a common practice among the Yao today. In Greenhill, most people went to the village clinic for help when sick. However, a soul-calling was conducted if the prescribed medicine failed to bring about a recovery. Oftentimes, though, medicine was used along with a soul-calling ritual to enhance its healing effect. No shaman was able to make a living by soul-calling. The payment for the services was only a meal and a small amount of money. Yet, many shamans were glad to do it for their fellow villagers. They did it for the fun of it, said Pan Jinxing, a recognized soul-caller in Greenhill.

Formal, elaborate, and colorful, the bridge ceremony is another Yao healing rite. It is conducted only when a person is severely ill and has already tried other means. To understand its rationale and procedures, I interviewed six Yao shamans and observed a bridge ceremony.

Theoretically, the bridge ceremony, like soul-calling, posits that the missing soul causes illness. As Yao shamans see it, a person falls ill when the soul in the body is out of place. The farther the soul wanders away from the body, the more severely the person suffers from the illness. The goal of the bridge ceremony is to build a symbolic bridge to join the human world and the spiritual world so that the missing soul can return to the body.

The Yao shamans have established a set of rules and standards to conduct the bridge ceremony. Unlike soul-calling, the bridge ceremony must be led by a shaman and is usually conducted outside the sick persons house. The host family hacks a plank from a tree and uses it as the symbolic bridge for the ceremony. The offerings are prepared and presented on a ritual table. The symbolic bridge is placed by the ritual table to signify the connection between the human world and the spiritual world. Sitting side by side with the sick person, the shaman begins by chanting his ritual texts, including hand-copied Daoist scriptures and the familys genealogy. When ready, the shaman throws rice and sacrificial items into the air. The sick person is asked to catch those items, carries them across the symbolic bridge, and places them on the ritual table. In the end, the shaman hands the sick person a chicken, a handful of rice, and a stick, and asks the person to walk back home without looking back. The ceremony often lasts an entire day. If all goes well, the Yao shamans believe that the soul will return to the body and the sick person will recover soon.

Pan Jingui, a 65-year-old shaman in Greenhill, explained the bridge ceremony to me in this way:

I did a bridge ceremony for my paternal cousin a few days ago. Why? Hed been sick for a long time and it looked like he was just getting worse. Did he go to see a doctor? Yeah, the village clinics worker gave him medicine and his family even took him to the district hospital. None of those worked for him, so they came to me. Yes, this ceremony needs a lot of preparations. What did we prepare? His father made corn whisky and his mother cooked sticky-rice sweets and pork dishes. I spent almost half a day hammering paper money for them. In the past, you had to slaughter a pig, but nowadays you dont have to do so.... Do I believe if its going to work? Well, you never know, it all depends on sincerity, good luck, and many other things....

Animistic rituals, such as soul-calling and the bridge ceremony, help to diminish the Yao villagers?anxiety caused by illness and create a lasting psychological comfort for the participants. Tightly bound together with the Daoist worldviews and ancestor worship morals, the Yao animism not only expresses the Yaos perception of the world but also provides the Yao with a spiritual solution to their secular problems.

Many times, I wondered why the Yao still maintained such a strong faith in their traditional rituals and ceremonies, which might easily be labeled as superstition by outsiders. Today, the impacts of modernization are widespread and phenomenal in the Golden Triangle. What made it possible for the Yao to carry on their religious beliefs? Eventually, I went to Feng Caiqing, the headman of the Greenhill village, for an answer.

“Crossing over mountains are still mountains,?the headman said almost poetically. “We keep up our ancestors?tradition, because we are still King Pans children.”